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ROYAL SOCIETY OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA
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VOL. LIV.
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EDITED BY PROFESSOR WALTER HOWCHIN, F.G:S.
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OFFICERS FOR 1930-31.
President:
CHARLES A. E. FENNER, D.Sc., Representative Governor.
Vice-Presidents:
PROFESSOR T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A,, D.Sc.
PROFESSOR J. A. PRESCOTT, M.Sce., A.LC.
Hon. Editor:
PROF. WALTER HOWCHIN, F.G:S.
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Hon. Auditors:
W. C. HACKETT. O. GLASTONBURY.
CONTENTS.
Page
Fenner, Dr. C.: The Major Structural and Physiographic Features of South Australia .. *
Rocers, Dr. R. S.: Contributions to the Orchidology of Papua and Australia ve ee ae.
Fintayson, H. H.: Observations on the South Australian Species of the Subgenus
Wallabia. Part 2. Plates i-ili, .. se a oe eh we ae gs Sete
Asupy, E.: Notes on Australian Polyplacophora .. 4 ve 5% ae is ia OU:
Biack, J. M.: Additions to the Flora of South Australia, No. 28. Plate iv. Pe Beto
ADELAIDE UNIVERSITY FIELD ANTHROPOLOGY—
PuLiEIne, Dr. R., and Woottarp, H.: Physiological and Mental Observations on the
Australian Aborigines .. = = Bi rie ee Bs Sa a hae
Fry, Dr. H. K.: Physiological and Psychological Observations .. a ae eG
Woop, J. G.: An Analysis of the Vegetation of Kangaroo Island and the Adjacent
Peninsulas ny sa ae ar a a ss as ae me ads .. 105
CLELAND, Dr. J. B.: Notes on the Flora North-West of Port Augusta, between Lake
Torrens and Tarcoola. Plates v.-vii. .. Ae ae ae ae os hie .. 140
Lea, A. M.: On some Coleoptera from Northern Australia, Collected by Dr. H. Basedow 148
WakeEFIELD, E. M.: Australian Resupinate Hydnaceae. (Communicated by Dr. J B.
Cleland) mt am rad a 3 ny ts Re ss A af ageallse
Howcuin, Pror. W.: The Geology of Orroroo and District. Plates viii. and ix... ep h59
Finiayson, H. H.: Notes on some South and Central Australian Mammals. Part I. .. 177
ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS hi Me ms an Ns ay ie a Sy) .. 181
ANNUAL REpPorT .. fd Shale, oH es a Me “8 a a On
Opiruary Notice a = i ae oh a es i as on .. 192
Sir JosepH Verco MepaL iv; a be a, a my nee a a yalQ5:
BALANCE SHEETS .. gs ae e ae ae 3 a me a ay .. 196
ENDOWMENT AND Screntiric RESEARCH FUND fs ee cf ua ay se .. 198
Donations To LIBRARY .. ce a >: aa te a a a re .. 199
Papers, Regulations concerning va a Bre Ne a a Be ee .. 205
SUGGESTIONS FOR THE GUIDANCE oF AUTHORS aa is ae Cas Re = .. 206
List or FELLows .. a ee 3s a ne Me ih es i . 19
(c) The Musgrave and Everard Ranzes ae wy A - oe a 19
(d) The Gawler and West Coast Ranges .. At # = i .. 20
(e) The “Tent Hills” of the Interior .. at bn sh she = .. 20
(f) The Volcanic Hills of the South-East .. B. me ee i ee 121
VI. PLAINS AND PLATEAUS : me ws a 4 7 us he wel
(a) The North-western Platéin ae ss oe ahs sd Ee see el
(b) The Plains of the North-East .. ae if. = Pe sh heel
(c) The Nullarbor Plains = ee i be | ms a a: 22
(d) The Mallee Plains .. ce ms ine of Re dee
(¢) The South-Eastern Plains (ie. ae ~ a ¥. ale Es Bie 22:
(f{) The Plains of the Sunklands = ie i A. re ta lk 24
VII. Drainace SYSTEMS .. bal He a Me os et am ee .. 24
(a) General ; Ae am is rr! Bs a ie (iA
(b) The Lake Reyrs Basin the. 6) i aes 2 sa, 725
(c) The Lake Torrens and Lake Frome Basins (fe 7) . is x a 4:)
(d) The Willochra Creck (fig. 8)... i ny ite A; 1. «28
(e) The River Broughton (fig. 9)... . © aes) 3
(£4) The Light, Gawler, Torrens, Culapssiies, Bic, an 10) . <4 as oe 82:
(g) The Lower Murray Valley (fig. 11) .. ni, i i” nf Os ik
2
1—INTRODUCTION.
This paper is the third and last of a series of papers (cited elsewhere ) which
the writer has submitted to this Society as a preliminary to the preparation of an
account of the Natural Regions of South Australia. A well-considered regional
division of the State was considered to be necessary for the adequate study of its
Human Geography, as well as for general teaching purposes, Such regions could
not be erected without a comprehensive survey of the State and its people.
The first of the three papers referred to included a study of the geomor-
phology and human geography of the Adelaide district—the best known and most
thickly settled portion of the State. The second paper dealt with the growth,
movement, and achievement of the people during the State’s first ninety years of
existence, touching also on the underlying geographic factors. The present
(third) paper aims to be purely geomorphological, and to outline the structure,
land forms, and drainage systems of the State in the light of modern views on
these subjects.
The fundamental paper on South Australian physiography is that by Pro-
fessor W. Howchin, embodying his Presidential Address to Section C at the
meeting of the A.A.A.S., in Melbourne, in 1913. Since then papers on the geo-
morphology of this State have been few in number, while structural work has been
largely confined to the Palaeozoic and older rocks. The contributions by Howchin,
Benson, Taylor, Mawson, Ward, Jack, Teale, Madigan and Hossfeld are men-
tioned elsewhere in this series of papers,
It will be understood, therefore, that our present knowledge of the details of
the latter tectonic movements, and of the present geomorphology of the State, is
distinctly limited. The country is a vast one. The workers are lamentably few.
To most of these workers other aspects of geological study have proved more
attractive. In this paper most of the less known areas are treated in broad detail
only, fresh theories are submitted in an endeavour to explain some of the facts
in the more critical areas, and an effort has been made to present a unified and
modern view of the post-Miocene tectonics and the present physiographic features
of South Australia,
The writer is indebted to Mr. Wm. Ham for assistance with the proofs, and
to Mr. J. A. Tillett for his careful draughtsmanship.
II—THE SOUTHERN COASTLINE.
The State of South Australia is set within a “square” of the earth’s surface.
That is to say, it extends between 12 degrees from cast to west, and 12 degrees
from north to south. But while the upper or northern half of this square is
practically an unbroken expanse of land, the southern portion is of varied outline,
and more than half consists of sca and gulf.
The geological history of the State, read in conjunction with the later tectonic
happenings, with the prevalence of fault influence on the coastlines and with the
abrupt descent of the sea floor to the Jeffrey Deep to the south (fig. 2 D), leaves
little doubt that there has been large-scale foundering to the south and south-west.
As the writer has elsewhere pointed out (Trans. Roy. Soc. S, Austr., vol, liii.,
1929, pp. 82-85), these great subsidences have opened up the southern districts
of the State to the oceanic influences of the cyclones and anti-cyclones, greatly
to the advantage of the districts concerned, These favourable influences are clearly
shown in the rainfall, temperature, and evaporation maps of the State. Thus the
heavily indented southern coastline, trending obliquely from latitude 32° 5. to
latitude 38° S., and due to post-Miocene large-scale subsidences and uplifts, must
be regarded as one of the most important structural features of South Australia.
WH iy,
US TRALIAN\ VZSUEENS/Z
a, LATITUDE 26°S~* ge (750 miles) Y
—— 6° (414 mls,
\
tyctue «© C NORTHERN DIVISION soneiruoeN
129°C OF I91°E.
SOUTH AUSTRALIA.
295,000 SQUARE MILES. senting
3.MARGIN OF re i NORTHERN
COUNTIES 2. 10-INGCH SOUTHERN
DIVISIONS
By ISOHYET.
LE Nn me ms
[. LATITUDE 32°S-
|
e : s
4 mihiy a C RC NN
SOUTHERN JADIVISION:
THEY “COUNTIES” AX
if e D
EYRE PENINSULA A85,0007 4 —B\
(“THE WEST COAST”) df USQUARE MILES Yy
I }
SPENCER eee —_ y, Y
YORKE PENINSULA “<2
GULF ST.VINCENT “yee
KANGAROO ISLAND \
FLEURIEU PENINSULA p
SOUTHERN ENCOUNTER BAY
OCEAN THE “ SOUTH-EAST” . Gy
ng ee M7 Yy
100 200 LATITUDE 38°S4"
Scale To Miles
C.Fiegso ~ “
Fig. 1.
Sketch map of South Australia, showing position, shape, area, and chief
place-names; also the various lines which form natural boundaries
between the Northern and the Southern Divisions.
IIl—THE TECTONIC MOVEMENTS OF THE GULF AND
TORRENS AREAS,
(a) The “Shatter-belt” of Australia—The most fertile and populous portion
of South Australia is the part that is centred about the two southern gulfs, Spencer
and St. Vincent. The present physiographic features of these gulf areas are the
outcome of certain tectonic movements of considerable extent and importance.
4
Australian geographers and geologists, in a somewhat loose and general way,
recognise a division of the island-continent into three major parts: (1) a great
stable “shield” of ancient rocks and uniform relief in the west; (2) an eastern
portion marked by wide variety of rock types, with sediments of many ages, and
with complex physiographic features; and (3) an intermediate separating zone
of considerable tectonic disturbance, with Miocene to recent block-faulting and
differential uplift, dividing the stable western part from the less stable east.
This intermediate zone, or ‘‘shatter-belt,’ has not been definitely delimited,
‘nor even positively demonstrated. Still, the conception is of value for descriptive
purposes. The belt characteristically includes the areas of depression and uplift
of the gulfs and central highlands of South Australia, and also of the Lake
Torrens and North Flinders ranges (vide “The Geography of South Australia,”
Howechin and Gregory; and also “Adelaide, South Australia,’ Fenner, Trans.
Roy. Soc, S.Austr., vol. li., 1927, pp. 195-200).
This zone may be taken to continue northward through the severely down-
warped (and possibly faulted) area of Lake Eyre, and thence onward to the
McDonnell Ranges. ‘The last-named area has been shown by L. Keith Ward and
R. Lockhart Jack, in various Bulletins of the S.A. Mines Department (also Proc.
Roy. Soc. S. Austr., vol. xlix., 1925, p. 61, ef. seq.), to be considerably faulted.
‘hence the ‘“shatter-zone” may continue north-westerly, in a gently curving
arc, through the little-known and somewhat featureless Tanami country, to the
severely block-faulted and mountainous peninsula mass that lies in North-West
Australia, between King’s Sound and Queen’s Channel. This latter area includes
the King Leopold and allied ranges. The pattern of the river systems there, the
character of the mountains, and the type of adjoining coast, alike bear witness
to block-faulting and differential uplift along the directions suggested, vwiz.,
dominantly N.W.-S.E., and subordinately N.E.-S.W. The relief is “strong,” and
there has been recent coastal submergence.
(b) The so-called “Rift Valley’ of South Australia—tIn the southern portion
of this broken zone, which here concerns us most, we have the relatively sunken
areas of the Spencer Gulf, Gulf St. Vincent, and Lake Torrens, with the adjoining
uplifted land-masses of the Flinders and Mount Lofty ranges. The general
structural features of this area have been dealt with in detail by the writer (Trans.
Roy. Soc. 5, Austr., 1927, vol. li, Sections ITI, and IV.).
In the paper referred to, certain objections were raised regarding the descrip-
tion of the above-mentioned sunken area as a Rilt Valley, Further exception may
be taken to its popular description as “The Great Valley of South Australia.” It
is desired to emphasise this point, and to produce further evidence in support of
the suggestion that we are here dealing with a tectonic feature that is not properly
described as a “Rift Valley”—nor even as a “Valley.” At the same time, certain
points regarding the age and the dynamics of this phenomenon will be considered.
In a discussion on this paper at the Royal Society of South Australia (1927),
Dr. L. Keith Ward contributed the following written suggestions, not hitherto
published :—‘Dr. Fenner has protested against the use of the term ‘Rift Valley’
for the complex area, part graben, part horst, including the two gulfs and the
surrounding land masses. J] think that he is right on the ground that this area
differs from the quite typical rift valley, such as that of Africa, etc. But one
cannot expect such regularity of fracturing in a region having such complex
structure as one would expect in a region with thick sub-horizontal sediments and
massive lava flows affected by trough faulting. We do not yet know whether
the phenomena of rift valleys are produced by normal or overthrust faulting—
whether by the gravitative sinking of a wedge after relief of tensional stress by
5
faulting, or by adjustment to compressive stresses. In the first case the faults
converge downwards, and in the latter they diverge. In the case of the Mount
Lofty-Flinders horst it is difficult to conceive an origin by compression, despite
the massive foreland to the westward. Probably the ancient sediments were
folded against this foreland in the Palaeozoic Era, but the rise of the Mount Lofty-
Flinders horst has been relatively recent. We know that the Mesozoic sediments
at the northern end of the Flinders Range have been affected by the earth move-
ments, even if there is an indication in Central Australia that the great depression
of Lake Eyre began to take form in Permo-Carboniferous time. The origin of
the twist in the southern end of the great lineal horst might indicate a com-
pressive stress induced by the northward movement of an earth block now
foundered. But if this were so there is no sign of a northern foreland in the Lake
Eyre region. Were there such a resistant block we might be tempted to compare
the structure of the region under discussion, in a broad way, with the middle
Rhine Valley, between the Vosges and the Schwartzwald, where it has been sug-
gested by Weber that the graben, like others, owes its existence to compressive
stress parallel to its length, with the consequent production of tension normal to
the compression. But the northern end of the Mount Lofty-Flinders horst faces
a structural depression, and if we take Kangaroo Island as its southern terminal,
we must admit that it faces another depression in the Jeffrey Deep. It is notice-
able that part of the western foreland itselfi—the foundation of Yorke Peninsula—
became involved in the faulting, a fact which seems to indicate that the stresses
which produced fractures were not so wholly controlled by geological formations
as might appear from the contrasted features on the opposite sides of the Torrens
Sunkland farther north.”
Professor Gregory, to whom we are indebted for the conception and defini-
tion of rift valleys, himself so named this South Australian feature. But it is clear
from the maps accompanying his account (p. 26, loc. cit.), that Professor Gregory
was not then in possession of full information regarding the detailed position of
the fault lines and the consequent outlines of the relatively lifted and sunken
blocks. The northern and southern “horns” of the cusps, shown in fig. 2 D, are
shown in Gregory’s maps as relics of “ancient east-west mountain ranges,” and the
sunken area itself is drawn as almost parallel-sided, which is not a true representa-
tion of the facts as we now know them. Special consideration has been given to
recent literature regarding the mechanics and the terminology of such sunken
areas.
De Martonne (“Traite de Geographie Physique,” tome second, Paris, 1926)
refers to clongated blocks of land that had been sunken, with relatively raised
blocks on either side, as “ditches”—‘fossés tectoniques.” German physiographers
use the word “graben” (after Suess) for narrow, relatively-depressed blocks, and
“senkungsfelder” for larger and more irregular sunken areas. American physio-
graphers (¢.g., Fenneman, A.A.A.G., vol. xviii, p. 348) use the term “moat,”
thus: “The basin of Lake Tahoe is in a moat, that is, on a depressed fault-block
between mountains on the west and east.”
In all these terms—rift, graben, moat, ditch, fossé—and indeed in the word
“valley” itself, there is a definite suggestion of parallelism of the sides and of an
elongate character in general.
Professor Gregory, who originated the term “rift valley” and applied it to
the classic examples of the Dead Sea and the East African tectonic moats, empha-
sises the parallelism of the boundary faults (“Ihe Rift Valleys and Geology of East
Africa,” J. W. Gregory, London, 1921, chap. xxxli.). On page 18 of that work
Gregory writes: “For this type of valley I suggested the name of Rift Valley,
using the term ‘rift’ in the sense of a relatively narrow space due to subsidence
between parallel fractures.” Howchin (Geography of South Australia, Adelaide,
A. PLACE NAMES.
SCALEs Miles.
Q 20 40 60
pr ae eat
500'-
1900"
1000-
4000:
NORTH~
WEST
PLATEAU
GAWLER RANGes
EYRE
PENINSULA
C.GEOLoGY.
MESOZOIC
AND LATER A
PALAEOZOIC F2.".”-
AND OLDER.
ney, BASIN
FORELAND=— = (fea
—
Four sketch maps illustrating the outstanding features of the Gulf and
Lake Torrens Area of South Australia, as described herein.
A., Chief Place-names; B., Relief; C., Geology; D., Major Structural Features.
?
1918, p. 27) speaks of: “the sinking of a strip of country, forming a rift
valley. . . .” Bailey Willis (Bulletin of the Geological Society of America,
vol. xxxix., 1928, p. 493), in his definitions, gives: “Rift Valley: Valley pro-
duced by subsidences of a strip bounded by two parallel rifts’—a “rift” being a
“normal fault with gravitational displacement.” (See also “Geologic Structures,”
Bailey Willis, New York, 1923, pp. 75-82.)
Enough has been quoted to show that the authorities on these matters agree
that some measure of elongation and of parallelism of the boundary faults are
essentials in the structure of a rift valley, Neither of these features is present in
the two cases under discussion.
The Torrens depression is shaped like a laterally-compressed capital D, while
the Spencer-Vincent depression is shaped like a broadly expanded D (see fig. 2).
The writer is of opinion that the name of such an important structural feature is
of distinct importance. In giving addresses on these matters to teachers, laymen,
and to other students, he has experienced difficulty in readily conveying to his
hearers a proper conception of the structural character of this area by the use of
the terms “The Great Valley of South Australia” or the “Rift Valley.” He has
already (lot cit.) suggested that these unhelpful and incorrect terms be discon-
tinued, and he here repeats and emphasises the point. The sunken areas are better
described as senkungsfelder, or, to adopt the anglicised form suggested to the
writer by Professor E, W. Skeats, they might be called Sunklands: (a) the
Torrens Sunkland, and (b) the Spencer-Vincent Sunkland, as set out in fig. 2 D,
(c) The Chief Boundary Iaults—The dominant features of the Gulf and
Torrens areas are set out in fig. 2, This figure includes four sketch maps entitled
A,B, C, and D. A. gives the names of the chief features involved. B. indicates
the comparative relief, the simplest description being that the shaded areas are
hills and highlands, and the unshaded areas are plains. C. shows the geological
formations in a broad way, all the Palaeozoic and older areas being shaded, and
the Triassic and younger areas (mostly Tertiary and Recent) being unshaded.
It will be noted how closely this geological division coincides with the physio-
graphic facts. In D. the chief structural features, as interpreted by the writer,
are clearly set out.
Where a fault is indicated in the figure by a heavy broken line, there may be
really a series of more or less parallel faults, extending both upwards into the
highlands and downwards into the sunklands. Physiographic evidence of such
step faults is available to all who journey along the adjoining plains on the eastern
or western sides of either the Mount Lotty or the Flinders Ranges. In many cases,
particularly in the Flinders Ranges and in the eastern Mount Lofty Ranges, these
stepped blocks arc almost diagrammatic in appearance ; similar features in the fault
scarp facing Adelaide have been described and figured by the writer (loc. cit.,
figs. 5, 6, 7). The stepped blocks of the Mount Lofty Ranges are best seen in an
evening view from Outer Harbour or St. Kilda. Similar stepped faults have been
mapped by R. L. Jack on the Lincoln Fault, Hundred of Randell (Bull. No, 3,
S.A. Mines Dept.).
To the eastward of the main are-shaped horsts are two uplifted areas that
branch away tangentially to the north-east; that on the north is the high and
rugged “Yudnamutana Spur,’ and that further south is the lower, broader, and
more maturely eroded “Olary Spur.” Both of these features are much more than
“spurs,” but this term is left unchanged for the present. Evidence collected by
Mr. R. L, Jack indicates that the low Olary ridge is not bounded by fault lines.
In emphasising the peculiar and regular arc-shaped character of the Mount
Lofty and Flinders faults, the following facts, quoted by Professor W. M. Davis
(vide “Geographical Review,” October, 1927, p. 669) are of special interest :—
At the 1926 Spring meeting of the California Rift Club, Davis spoke “with
8
especial regard to the contrast between rifts (faults) of the San Andreas type,
on which movements with a large horizontal component seem to predominate, and
rifts of the Wasatch type, on which movements with a large vertical component
prevail. In examples of the first type the path or trace of the rift is nearly recti-
linear, and there is no strong or persistent difference of elevation on its two sides.
In examples of the second type the trace of the rift departs from a straight line
in many concave bights from one to five or ten miles in curved length, between
somewhat pronounced cusps which point from the side of elevation to the side of
depression; and the side of elevation is occupied by a more or less dissected moun-
tain range, while the side of depression is occupied by an aggraded plain of moun-
tain-supplied detritus,”
This interesting description corresponds very closely on the South Australian
structures with which we are dealing. The boundary faults of the Mount Lofty
and Flinders ranges horsts, for instance, appear to be of the Wasatch type. They
have a large vertical component, as evidenced by the fact that within a range of
twelve miles normal to the fault face adjoining the city of Adelaide there is, within
the limit of some six-stepped blocks, a differential displacement of from 4,000 to
5,000 feet. ‘The highest point of the Mount Lofty block stands at 2,330 feet
above sea level, and in the Croydon bore, 12 miles distant, the surface of the same
rocks has been faulted down to a depth of at least 2,260 feet.
Regarding the trace of such faults, their graceful curves, on a large scale,
are their most notable feature. Such curves are certainly greater in size than those
described by Professor Davis, but they otherwise fit his description. ‘Ihe question
arises whether the straight boundary faults of the western parts of the sunken
areas (the Lincoln and Torrens faults) are of the San Andreas type. They are cer-
tainly almost rectilinear, as delimited by both the geological and physiographic evi-
dence ; and the difference of elevation, though in many cases marked and regular,
may perhaps be described as “neither strong nor persistent.” Certainly these
western faults have characters which distinguish them from those of the eastern
boundaries of the sunklands (fig. 2). If this analysis is correct, we should expect
the Lincoln and Torrens faults to have large horizontal components in their move-
ments. On this point no evidence is at present available.
(d) Festoon or Garland Structures—There is a further point of interest
regarding these arc-shaped horsts. Among the outstanding characteristics of
circum-Pacific structural features are the arc-shaped chains of uplifted land that
appear on our maps as mountain ranges or island groups, according to their rela-
tion to sea level. These have been aptly called “Festoons” by Suess, Gregory, and
others, and “Garlands” by Ilobbs (“Les Guirlandes Insulaires, ete.,” W.H. Hobbs,
Annales de Geographie, tome xxxi., 1922, pp, 485-495).
Such island festoons are characteristically convex outwards towards the great
Pacific basin. They are regarded as rising anticlines, Suess holding that the dis-
placement comes from the concave (landward) side and the resistance from the
ocean; while Hobbs conceives the movement to come from the ocean (convex)
side, with the “mdle de résistance” on the continental side.
While it is clear that these great differentially uplifted arcs of the Mount
Lofty and Flinders ranges are structures of a different character from the island
festoons, there is yet something that is common to the two sets of structures.
The writer has already pointed out (loc. cit., p. 199) that the Great East-Austra-
lian Highland Horst, reaching from Cape York to Southern Tasmania, is some-
what of this shape, and that many similar cases occur, such as the block-faulted
Victorian Grampians, where the mountains consist of differentially uplifted arcs,
again convex towards the east (the Pacific).
(e) The Dynamics of the Movements —tIn his first considerations of the
dynamics of the movements concerned the writer accepted the common view that
9
block mountains such as those of the Mount Lofty and Flinders ranges had to do
with normal faults and were associated with tensile stresses. In a detailed field in-
vestigation of these ranges as landscape features, there is much to suggest that the
movements have been “thrust” movements, that compression and not tension has
been the dominating factor. These impressions are of no positive value as
evidence, but in areas as naked in structure as the Flinders Ranges, and where so
little mapping has been done or sections prepared, such impressions assume a
somewhat higher degree of importance.
The dynamics of “Rift” valleys has lately come in for much discussion. The
fundamental principles touch on a problem of long standing and of great and
almost insoluble difficulty. Are these movements due to crustal tension or to
crustal compression? The idea of a “Rift Valley” as expounded by Gregory
carries with it the existence of “normal” faults, of beds that occupy a total linear
extension (normal to the faults) greater than before the faulting, and thus of a
tensile (tearing apart) stress of the rocks of the crust—the subsidence of the
“Keystone” of an anticlinal arch.
The alternative theory now put forward, and supported by considerable
evidence, is that some of the so-called rift valleys are due to compression and not
to tension. It is argued that the side blocks have becn pushed towards one another,
and that along the fault lines bounding the central block the lateral blocks have
risen and ridden along thrust planes over the wide base of the central block. The
name of “Ramp Valley” has been suggested to distinguish such valleys as being
due to compression.
The classic argument for the “Ramp Valley” theory is Bailey Willis’s paper
on “The Dead Sea Problem,” published by the Geological Society of America
(loc. cit.). The paper contains several converging lines of evidence towards the
theory that the chief factor in the formation of these major tectonic features is
compression and not tension. The Spencer-V incent Sunkland is not a parallel
case; there are many differences, but there are some similarities. We have no
evidence to show whether the bounding faults of the local ranges and depressions
are normal or thrust faults.
Another exponent of the compression theory is E. J. Wayland, of Uganda
(‘“‘Nature,” March, 1924, p. 388), who has worked on the “Rift Valleys” of eastern
and north-eastern Africa. Wayland admits the existence of some normal faults
along the boundaries of the sunken areas, but considers that these are consequent
upon subsidence, and that they obscure the original structures due to crustal com-
pression. In the “Mining Magazine,” April, 1929, there is a reference to a paper
by Ernest Parsons (Trans. Geol. Soc. S. Af., vol. xxxi., 1928), wherein it is again
argued that the rift-making forces are compressional rather than tensional; that
they are such forces as produce folding elsewhere, but in an area of exceptional
stability produce fracturing with reversed faulting.
This compression theory is a suggestive one, and in the special case of the
Gulf Region of South Australia it must also include the formation of the Mount
Lofty and Flinders ranges; it is possible that this theory may yet provide an
explanation for the peculiar fact that the “festoons” of highlands in Australia
are so like, yet so distinct in character from those “compression festoons” of other
areas where it is reasonable to assume a lower crustal stability than we have in
the Australian region.
(f) The Age of the Fault Block Movements.—The age of the last great
orogenic uplift in Australia, the “Kosciusko epoch,” is generally considered to be
early Pleistocene. But there is evidence also of movements of the same kind in
the same localities at earlier dates, perhaps even as far back as the close of the
Cretaceous, and it may be also that definite movements continued up to the late
Pleistocene and Recent.
10
The writer has discussed this question in detail in his paper on the “Physio-
graphy of the Werribee River Area, Victoria” (Proc. Roy. Soc. Vic., vol. xxxi.,
1918,), where the chief Australian authorities and references up to that date are
quoted. ‘The conclusion reached was that the general peneplanation of Australia
was completed in lower Miocene time, and that the major faulting and differential
uplift took place from late Pliocene onwards.
In the twelve or more years since that paper was written the writer has had
further opportunities of studying the block mountains, sunklands, and the sub-
sequent erosional valleys in the other States of the Commonwealth, and of further
studying the arguments put forward and the conclusions reached regarding the
age of similar horst and graben movements in other parts of the world, where
there might reasonably be expected to be some amount of sccular correlation,
The conclusion now reached is in the direction of giving a wider range in
time to these block-faulting movements. Granting that the Great Peneplanation
of Australia was a pre-Miocene phenomenon, some of the orogenic uplift may
have been contemporaneous with the emergence of the mid-Miocene areas from
the sea, and the movements possibly continued persistently, with periods of extra
stress, right through the upper Miocene, and the Pliocene (which was a time of
great volcanic activity), with a more intense phase in the eatly Pleistocene, The
Pliocene phases might be associated with the formation of the horsts and graben,
and that of the Pleistocene with the later rapid uplift of the western blocks of
the Mount Lofty Ranges, leading to the formation of the Torrens, Sturt, and
Onkaparinga gorges, and associated with all those younger and more obvious
evidences of late block faulting that are found in the orogenic areas of Australia.
Further, there is evidence in the Adelaide area, both at Hallett’s Cove and at the
southern end of the Para fault scarp (in Adelaide), of differential movements
along fault lines in late Pleistocene to Recent time.
(g) Conclusions —Summing up the position we may conclude that :—
i. The Gulf and Torrens areas of South Australia represent major
tectonic features that form the southern portion of what is suggested
to be a great broken zone extending northwards across Australia, and
separating the more stable western from the less stable eastern portion.
ii, The chief elements of the tectonic features concerned are as sct out
in fig, 2,
iii, The names “Rift Valley” and “Great Valley of South Australia” are
not considered satisfactory, and it is suggested that they be replaced
by the terms: “Spencer-Vincent Sunkland” and the “Torrens Sunk-
land,” wide fig. 2,
iv. The dynamics of these features are unknown; they may be due either
to tension or to compression.
v. The differential block movements of uplift and depression are assumed
to have commenced in the upper Miocene with considerable emphasis
in the Pliocene; an extensive and important movement; specially con-
centrated along the western margin of the horsts, at the opening of the
Pleistocene (Kosciusko epoch), with final lesser movements in the
late Pleistocene to Recent. This question is further discussed in
Section V (a), where the possibility of a second (? Upper Pliocene)
period of planation is suggested.
IV.—PHYSIOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE,
(a) Exoreism, Endoreism, and Areism—In the early days of physiographic
study most workers concentrated on what was called “sub-aerial erosion,” By
this term was meant, in general, the normal work of erosion by rivers and their
tributaries in areas of practically permanent flow, During the two last decades
11
there has been some concentration on the physiographic cycle in arid and semi-
arid lands, and it has been shown to what a high degree the agents of erosion and
the products of erosive action differ according to the prevailing climatic conditions.
Among those who have assisted in drawing up standards for the assessment
of the physiographic processes in arid lands, the work of Professor de Martonne,
of the University of Paris, is notable. A recent paper by this authortiy has proved
to be of special assistance in considering the problems presented by the inter-
actions of physiography and climate in South Australia. (“Regions of Interior-
Basin Drainage,’ Emm. de Martonne, Geographical Review, July, 1927,
pp. 397-414).
De Martonne has shown the very important distinction that exists between
areas where the precipitation is sufficient to cause the development of a drainage
system that leads to the sea (exorcic), compared with an area where the precipita-
tion is lower, or the evaporation greater, or the absorption more marked, or where
some or all of these factors may operate together so that the streams developed
never have sufficient power to find a way to the sea, and either disappear in an
alluvial basin or end in centres of internal (endoreic) drainage. In still other
areas, where the conditions are cven more arid, there is no run-off at all, and no
stream courses are developed; such areas are called areic regions.
The three terms tsed, with their definitions, are as follows; each of them
being derived from Greek words :—
Exoreism, meaning through-flowing, or drainage to the ocean.
Endoreism, inward-flowing, or interior basin drainage; and
Areism, which indicates regions with no flow, where there is no run-off
at all.
To these the writer proposes to add a fourth and minor type: “Cryptoreism,”
a form of exoreism, signifying hidden (underground) flow, as in the south-
eastern region of South Australia.
“The deserts,” writes de Martonne, “are par excellence the regions of interior-
basin drainage or endoreism, but they present a particular case where run-off is
nil, and for which the term areism is proposed.”
In fig, 3 the various factors are set out on six small maps as follows :—
A.—In this map are shown the various place-names, so that descriptions of
the State may be followed by those not familiar with local topography.
B.—Shows the general relief, and is taken from maps prepared by Dr.
L. Keith Ward, Director of Mines, South Australia. The scale of
the series of sketch maps is shown in this figure.
C.—Shows the mean annual rainfall (isohyets) of the State, kindly supplied
by Mr. E. Bromley, of the Commonwealth Meteorological Bureau, and
is from the latest records. This map includes three parallels of lati-
tude for comparative purposes.
D.—Gives the lines of mean annual evaporation. These are in the main
estimates, but have been checked up by records which show that the
evaporation at Adelaide is 544 inches per annum from a free water
suriace, and at Alice Springs (across the northern border in Central
Australia) the evaporation is 943 inches per annum.
E.—Shows the mean annual temperature. Between the isotherm of 60°
and that of 65° the influence of the Mount Lofty Ranges brings in an
“oasis” of coolness where the temperatures run from 55° to 60° (all
these temperatures are Fahrenheit). On this map is also indicated the
chief artesian and sub-artesian basins of the State.
12
——
a—=
p——J
——F
AIT:
——=————————
'
MUSGRAVE RANGES 1
NORTH-WEST a; Sey he
1 we 4
PLAINS oy LAKE
-—-
HR 2000' to 4000. = ="
ERY 1900! to 2000' Ny *,
EZ] s00'To 1009" fe
[[] o'te 500*
re
Below Sea Level-te l00Fa.
B. RELIEF.
AAdelaide Plains.
YP. Yorke Peninsula,
K.1.= Kangares Island
A. PLACE NAMES.
GMB over 251incues 8
BBR 207025 »
MM 15 To20 «
J 10715 »
§ Told «
CJ oS «
AVERAGE ANNUAL
C. RAINFALL.
AVERAGE ANNUAL
D. EVAPORATION.
Pum
U,4
Th
IT ENDoREIc
F. exoreic
SN ARTESIAN AND
YS SUB~ARTN AREAS.
AVERAGE ANNUAL
E TEMPERATURE.
Fig. 3.
Six sketch maps presenting the facts regarding the commoner place-
names, relief, rainfall, evaporation, and temperature of South Australia,
with a division of the State into areic, endoreic, and exoreic areas.
13
F.—This figure, based upon the information given in the preceding figures,
shows the position and extent of the areas of arcism, endoreism, and
exoreism in South Australia. A fourth type of drainage is indicated
by broken lines in the extreme South-East where, although the rainfall
is sufficient to establish exoreism under normal geological conditions,
there are no flowing surface streams.
According to de Martonne’s definitions, areic areas are those where there is
no run-off. Through such an area, a river, such as the Nile or the Murray, may
run, but its waters are derived from distant sources, and the area passed through
is still areic, despite the presence of the river. In a similar way many of the
rivers of the Lake Eyre Basin receive no additional water in the lower parts of
their courses across the wide central plains. Such regions, though occasionally
crossed by run-off from neighbouring highlands, are themselves without run-off ;
that is, they are areas of areism.
Taking due advantage of latest and most detailed information available, the
writer finds that his map of South Australia very closely coincides with the details
for South Australia as published in the article above quoted. On the whole,
de Martonne was perhaps a little more generous than the circumstances permit. It
will be seen from F, fig. 3, that the greater part of South Australia is areic—
particularly the area north of lat. 32° S., and also the greater part of Eyre
Peninsula and Yorke Peninsula.
The “South-East” presents a peculiar case. North and east from a low
scarp that runs north-west from Naracoorte, there is a distinct run-off, with
definite streams flowing towards the west (see fig. 5). Beyond this scarp, to the
west, where there is sufficient rainfall to have developed a through system of
drainage (exoreism), the following antagonistic factors exist, The peculiar
arrangement of old dune ridges parallel with the coast and normal to the natural
flow of surface water, the nature of the country (level-bedded porous Miocene
limestone with incipient karst topography), and the extent of the underground
drainage, have prevented the development of exoreism, although in winter time (the
wet season), the water travels over the surface in wide-spreading sheets. A high
proportion of water also travels underground and reaches the sea by means of
coastal springs. It would be wrong to class this region as areic, or even endoreic.
It is really a type of exoreism, but represents something different which de Mar-
tonne has not defined. The writer suggests that this type of drainage be termed
“cryptoreic” (hidden drainage), to be applied only where the index of aridity is
above, say, 30, with no surface streams developed. The areas referred to are
shaded in fig. 3 F by broken horizontal lines.
Endoreism-—The areas of endoreism are shown in F, fig. 3, and by com-
parison with the rainfall, temperature, evaporation, and relief of the accompany-
ing sketch maps it will be realized why they are so closely limited to the highland
areas, In these highlands, such as the Flinders and Musgrave ranges, the develop-
ment of drainage patterns of normal stream-cut type is marked, and points back
to a Pleistocenc pluvial period or series of periods that possibly corresponded
with the glaciation of Kosciusko and Tasmania and with the suite of large and
varied animal life (now extinct) of the interior. These stream courses will be
dealt with in some detail in a later section. In many cases the water from the
highlands continues across wide stretches of areic plains in times of exceptional
rains; in 1930 wide sheets of water lay for upwards of two weeks on the usually
arid Nullarbor Plains.
Exoreism.—tThis type of drainage, where the streams flow through to the sea,
though normal in those countries of the world where the physiographic features
have been most closely studied, is not normal in South Australia. The exoreic
14
areas are shown in fig. 3, with horizontal shading, and they include only the Mount
Lofty Ranges and portion of the South Flinders. Even in the parts mentioned,
a high proportion of the water which flows from the Mount Lofty Ranges is lost
where such streams as the Gawler, the Light, the Broughton, and the Burra Creek,
cross wide alluvial plains.
(b) The “Index of Aridity”’—De Martonne has given us a valuable method
of estimating climate, by what is called the index of aridity. This is independent
of the use of the indefinite term “desert,” and is calculated on the following
formula :—
P
Ar = st *
T+ 10
Ar represents the “Index of Aridity,” P is the mean annual rainfall in milli-
meters, and T is the mean annual temperature in degrees centigrade. Un-
fortunately, the formula so acts that the less arid the country the higher is the
index of aridity.
Applying this index to the whole world, it is shown that areas with a high
degree of aridity are also areas of endoreism, and particularly of areism. In other
words, the moist regions of the world are regions of through drainage (exoreism),
and the semi-arid and desert regions of the world are regions of endoreism and
areism. The index of aridity in the Southern Hemisphere is lowest (driest)
about latitude 30°. This applies to the other southern continents as it does to
Australia.
The following are the indices of aridity for characteristic regions of South
Australia -—
Mean Annual Mean Annual Index
Temperature. Precipitation. of Aridity.
Central Lake Eyre Basin .. .. 70°F 5” 4:1
Northern margin of wheat lands
(10” isohyet) .. oA .. 64°F 10” 9-1
Adelaide (metropolitan area .. 63°F 21” 19°6
Southern ends of Peninsulas &, 60° F 28” 27°8
The highest index shown in the State is about 32, which corresponds with the
generalization that exoreism is at its maximum for valucs above 35. The
northern margin of our settled cultivated areas has an index of 9+1, which
is within de Martonne’s limit of areism (desert). The statements put forward
in the paper referred to thus assist in a more satisfactory description of our State,
and a more complete correlation of the physiographic with the climatic conditions.
The conditions in South Australia also generally agree with the statement of
E.G. R. Taylor (“Oceans and Rivers,” p. 26) that “In cool temperate climates
the run-off approaches zero when the rainfall is only ten inches, while in sub-
tropical regions 20 inches of rain, and in Torrid regions 40 inches of rain, is
necessary to ensure flowing rivers.”
It is unfortunately true, as stated by de Martonne, that while Asia, Africa,
and Australia are the three continents with the least perfect drainage, with the
greatest area of internal drainage, and with the most massive structure, Australia
among all the continents holds the record for endoreism, namely, 64°% of the total
area, of which latter portion two-thirds is areic.
15
V—THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN HIGHLANDS.
(a) The Mount Lofty Ranges—The features dealt with in this and the
following sections have frequently been described in a general way. It is here
proposed to deal with them purely from the point of view of the tectonic move-
ments that have affected them, the rocks of which they are composed, and the
erosion which they have subsequently undergone.
The broad outlines of the structure of the Mount Lofty Ranges have been
described in Section I. ‘Chey have also been dealt with, in some detail, elsewhere
by the writer (Trans. Roy. Soc, S, Austr., vol. li, 1927, with several figures).
In the popular local acceptation of the term, the Mount Lofty Ranges consist only
of that abruptly-uplifted highland arc of ancient highly-resistant Cambrian and
Pre-Cambrian rocks (quartzites, tillites, slates, limestones, schists, gneisses, and
granites) that runs from Cape Jervis to the Torrens Valley, or perhaps north-
wards to the valley of the South Para River. Here there appears to be a striking
radial (east-west) fault zone, and the ranges thence northward are of a much
lower and physiographically older type. Genetically, however, and from the
structural point of view, the Mount Lofty Ranges may be held to include the
whole of the highland arc northward up to the neighbourhood of Georgetown, as
well as its continuation in Kangaroo Island to the south-west (see fig. 2D.).
This highland area is severcly block-faulted, in curving lines, parallel with the
general outline of the horst, the blocks mainly dipping their old peneplain surfaces
to the east and the scarp to the west. Regarded from the west, this uplifted arc
reaches its maximum elevation at Mount Lofty itself, directly east of the city of
Adelaide, thence sloping downwards both to the south and to the north. Radial
faults also occur, normal to the margins of the horst, and it is likely that a con-
siderable number of the transverse valleys of the ranges mask radial faults; this
is apparently so in many of the “gullies” facing Adelaide. Several of the longi-
tudinal valleys are in part tectonic, but the main lines of drainage are apparently
antecedent, with tributaries strongly influenced both by later block-faulting and
underlying rock structures.
The greater part, perhaps the whole, of the horst of the Mount Lofty Ranges
has been stripped of a covering of level-bedded, easily-eroded, Tertiary (marine
Miocene) sediments. It is generally agreed that differential uplift (block-
faulting) and contemporaneous and subsequent erosion have formed the features
as we know them to-day. Only one peneplain (pre-Miocene) and only one great
uplift (dominantly Pleistocene, the “Kosciusko Epoch”) have usually been
considered.
This hypothesis, however, does not explain all the peculiarities of certain
critical areas, such as the Torrens Valley on the one hand, and the coastal strip
that runs from O’Halloran Hill to Myponga on the other. Some of the existing
structures of these areas could perhaps be better explained by assuming two
dominant stages of block-faulting, with two periods of peneplanation, the later
planation being partly carried out in the softer Tertiary “overmass.” This pos-
sibility was suggested to the writer by Professor Douglas W. Johnson, of Columbia
University, New York, while travelling over the area in question. The theory has
not been fully investigated, but a score or more visits have been paid to critical
localities, and there is sufficient general support available to justify some elabora-
tion of the suggestion.
In order to give definiteness to this modified hypothesis regarding the struc-
ture of the Mount Lofty Ranges, and to better permit of critical consideration
thereof, fig. 4 has been drawn to illustrate the suggested succession of events.
The sections in the figure are purely diagrammatic, and are lettered A, B, C, D, E;
the hypothetical blocks are numbered 1, 2, 3, 4, 5.
LATER
ALLUVIUM.
OLDER
ALLUVIUM,
MIOCENE
LIMESTONES.
CAMBRO-
CAMBRIAN
COMPLEX.
PRE
Fig. 4.
A series of sections drawn to illustrate the theory that at least two
periods of Tertiary peneplanation are involved in the production of the
f the Mount Lofty Ranges, as described in the
present topography o
context,
17
In section A we have the prevailing highly-resistant Cambrian and Pre-
Cambrian complex (quartzites, slates, tillite, gneisses, schists, and intrusive rocks),
which was planed down to a remarkably widespread level surface in pre-Miocene
times (cf. Davis’s “Geographical Essays,” Boston, 1909, chapters xvii. and xviii.).
There were also some softer Permian tillites and Mesozoic sediments. but these
do not affect the present discussion, The peneplain, which must have extended
well to the south of the present limits of the State, became covered by the sea in
Miocene time, when a series of marine limestones and clays were deposited,
indicated as the horizontal overmass in section A,
In section B is indicated a phase of block-faulting, tilting, and differential
uplift that may have taken place in the upper Miocene or lower Pliocene: this
figure shows the “end product” of the tectonic phase, that is, as the blocks would
have appeared at the conclusion of their displacement had there been no con-
temporaneous erosion.
In section C we have a second peneplain, the product of the contemporaneous
erosion of the preceding uplift, plus a sustained period of planation extending to,
say, the beginning of the Pleistocene. In this stage there may have been produced
the mature landscapes of the upper Torrens (Mount Pleasant), etc, According
to their tilting and relative uplift, the materials of the five blocks have been pre-
served to varying extents: Block 1, wholly preserved and covered by alluvium;
block 2, the pre-Miocene peneplain stripped of its overmass and re-exposed
(exhumed) ; blocks 3 and 4, the new peneplain truncating the Pre-Cambrian and
the Miocene alike; block 5, the new peneplain formed on one portion of the block,
while over the eastern half the easily-eroded overmass has been stripped off by
erosion, exposing the older peneplain ; thus two peneplains of different ages adjoin
each other.
In section D is suggested a period of, say, Pleistocene uplift (the “Kosciusko
Epoch’), mainly along the original fault lines; this section shows the final product
of the uplift and tilting as it would have appeared had there been no contemporan-
eous erosion,
In section E we have: Block 1, the whole of the three series of rocks pre-
served, depressed, and covered by recent alluvium from adjoining higher blocks
(Adelaide Plains) ; block 2, the first (pre-~Miocene) peneplain exhumed, uplifted,
and subjected to a fresh cycle of erosion (? Mount Osmond Golf Links) ; blocks
3 and 4, erosion of western scarp face with deposition of “fault-apron” alluvial on
adjoining lower block (Burnside, Sellick’s Hill, etc.) ; portion of second peneplain
preserved (? O'Halloran Hill) ; portion of first peneplain exhumed by erosion of
Miocene limestones (? McLaren Vale) ; remnant of Miocene limestones, alluvial-
covered, towards the adjoining scarp (?Noarlunga and Port Willunga); block 5,
youthful (Recent) valleys in both the first (pre-Miocene) and the second (? late
Pliocene to early Pleistocene) peneplains. In section E the surface of the first
(older) peneplain is shown by a thick black line, the surface of the second
(younger) peneplain by a shaded line, and the remainder of the surface (thin line)
is that of the third (present cycle of erosion that is involved in the period and
area dealt with.
The preceding paragraphs, with the accompanying sections (fig. 4), present
in bricf the essential features of a modified hypothesis regarding the physiographic
history of the Adelaide and Mount Lofty area.
Reference was made in a previous section to relatively late movements along
fault lines in the Adelaide district. There are two or three lines of evidence that
are of special interest :-—Along the western boundary of the southern portion of
the city of Adelaide, from the Newmarket Hotel to Keswick Railway Bridge, the
incoherent Pleistocene and later gravels, silts, ctc., have been faulted. The line
of the fault scarp is still to be seen (notwithstanding roads, cuttings, and other
18
artificial earthworks of various kinds), and despite long-continued erosion it per-
sists as a distinct break in elevation—the most southerly portion of the Para Scearp.
This suggests Recent movement along the Para Fault. The friable, dissected,
horizontal, ferruginous beds of (?) Pleistocene age that remain against the main
Mount Lofty Scarp on the south side of the Anstey’s Hill road provide supporting
evidence of this Recent uplift, Also, at Hallett’s Cove, a triangular patch of very
readily-croded rocks (Permo-Carboniferous tillite, a thin band of ? Lower Plio-
cene marine limestone, and thick overlying ? Pleistocene mottled clays) have been:
(a) preserved by down-faulting, and (b) uplifted and dissected by marine and
sub-aerial erosion; this also suggests very late fault movements, well worthy of
closer investigation.
Nothing further need be added, except to affirm that the mature landscapes
of the upper Torrens, upper Onkaparinga, and other streams heading towards
the Mount Pleasant area are difficult of explanation, unless we assume a long
period of sub-aerial planation following the first uplift, some exhumation of the
pre-Miocene surface, and some later tectonic influences, followed by the present
cycle of erosion, The two or three western blocks that are truncated by the
Torrens Gorge must have risen later, and their topography, antecedent, super-
imposed (Torrens, Para, etc.), and consequent with headward erosion (Morialta,
Waterfall Gully, etc.), is in a youthful phase,
The ranges from Gawler northward to Gladstone are of a different character,
and their story remains to be written. On some blocks there is evidence of late-
youthful topography, but for the most part this productive region represents a
“matureland” (Willis) of low hills and broad valleys, characteristically developed
in the basin of the River Light.
Further north, the Mount Lofty Ranges widen and gently curve onwards into
the Flinders Ranges (see fig. 2). To the north-east a broad, low “spur,” which has
been called the Olary Spur, runs away towards and through Broken Hill, This is,
in fact, a broad uplifted plateau (1,000 feet to 2,000 feet), and it has a mature
topography, while the structure along its boundaries indicates warping rather
than faulting. As Howchin has pointed out, the stream courses are in many cases
most uncertain and anomalous, and may change direction from one flood-time to
another.
The proximal portion of this “spur,” which is situated eastward of the area
where the Mount Lofty Ranges merge into the Flinders Ranges, is really a
maturely-developed, up-warped plateau, over 1,000 feet above sea level, with
occasional higher ridges.
A characteristic feature of this area, and indeed of many other portions of
the State, consists of wide plains, deeply filled with alluvial. Sometimes, as in the
upper portions of the Broughton and Light Rivers, the local streams are drained
to the sca (exoreic). In other cases, of which Pekina Creek is an example,
streams run into deep alluvial basins, and are lost.
The statement that “Even the weariest river winds somewhere safe to sea,”
was written by a poet of a moister land than ours, Most South Australian rivers,
however weary, do not reach the sea, but find their resting-places in wide and deep
alluvial-Alled basins—basins that have been filled up by the long-continued silting
action of the rivers that still periodically flow into them, aided by deposits of wind-
borne dust.
These widespread alluvial-filled basins are among the most significant features
of the physiography of South Australia. They occur as the so-called central
“lakes” —Torrens, Eyre, Frome, etc. They are the foundations of many of the
fertile wheat plains of the northern areas, and will probably be found to have
played an important part of the story of the physiographic development of the
lower Murray River itself.
19
On the Peterborough Plateau, and along the Olary Spur, which is only partly
within the area of 10-inch rainfall, we get marked evidences of arid and semi-
arid physiography, namely :—
(a) Sustained wind-erosion with occasional rapid water-erosion.
(b) Stream courses of the wady type, sometimes erratic in direction,
steeply gullied in their upper portions, ending in broad alluvial fans
or wide alluvial basins,
(b) The Flinders Ranges—Broadly speaking, the Flinders Ranges may be
regarded as a repetition of the Mount Lofty Ranges. There is a similar horst
structure, abruptly ending along fault scarps on east and west, a similar arc-
shaped curve in the plan of the ranges, and a similar, but much more dominant
and impressive north-easterly spur. (See fig. 2.) There is even a break between
the cusp of the Willouran Ranges and the main range analogous to the break at
Backstairs Passage in the south. The rock types embrace the same series of
ancient and highly-resistant rocks, and the structures are fairly similar, though the
block-faulted and tilted masses of the Flinders Ranges show also definite synclinal
and anticlinal structures, as at Wilpena and Blinman (Howchin).
In spite of these similarities, the Flinders Ranges, as landscape features, are
utterly unlike the Mount Lofty Ranges. One could not conceive, a priori, that
there would be so striking a difference between the landscapes of the two ranges,
which have structures so similar and rock types so alike. This difference, it would
appear, is largely due to the fact that wind erosion is today a more important
factor in the sculpture of the Flinders Ranges than it is in the moister Mount
Lofty Ranges. Where the Flinders Ranges are abrupt, rugged, pinnacled, and
(in places) naked of soil and vegetation, the Mount Lofty Ranges are softened
and rounded in outline, and clothed with soil and vegetation.
The wind erosion phase of the Flinders Ranges is, nevertheless, imposed upon
a drainage network formed by water. Water is still doing its work, but in the
pluvial period that is believed to have been experienced here in lower Pleistocene
time (Gregory, David, Howchin, etc.), the patterns of the ranges were decided
upon, and the influence therein of rock structures, and to a lesser extent of rock
types, is marked. The full story has not yet been worked out in detail, owing to
the almost complete absence of mapping in these areas, but a study of exceptional
interest here awaits some future worker.
The Yudnamutana Spur contains some of the wildest and boldest parts of the
ranges. The strike of the Cambrian and Pre-Cambrian rocks, instead of running
parallel with the range, as is usually the case, is most varied and unexpected.
Dr. Ward and Mr. R. Lockhart Jack have plotted sufficient data to show that the
strike and dip here are most confused, bearing witness to exceptional torsion,
differential movement, and general disturbance. The same writers have shown
that this Cambrian and Pre-Cambrian horst continues onward underground to the
north, plunging below the Cretaceous beds, as revealed by bores in the artesian
basin of the north-east,
(c) The Musgrave and Everard Ranges—These ranges are little known
structurally. Mr, R. Lockhart Jack (Geological Survey, S.A. Bull., No. 5), con-
siders that faulting plays a considerable part in their structure. Their general
direction is east-west. In the Musgrave Ranges granitic cores and bosses play an
important part in determining the structures, with schists and gneisses in the
Everards, but there is a marginal “festoon” of residual hills to the south that is
formed from Ordovician sediments. ‘The main granite masses are also slightly
arc-shaped, concave to the north,
The ranges are in general low and scattered, with wide alluvial-filled plains
or plateaus between. The main Musgrave mass rises more mountainously, and is
20
crowned by the highest peak in the State, Mount Woodroffe, about 5,000 feet.
The general valley pattern has been water-formed (see fig. 6), and some streams
still run to the north, east, and south, from the main range, but are only occasion-
ally called upon to function. In times of exceptional rain some of the run-off from
the Musgraves reach the Lake Eyre Basin, via the Alberga.
The chief erosive agent in so arid an area is the wind, aided by a wide range
of daily temperature variation. Rugged, bare, rock faces, sand-blast features, sand
accumulations, bare talus slopes—all bear witness to the consistent, never-
ceasing eroding and transporting power of the wind. The hill shapes bear witness,
as do the stream patterns, to their formation under normal conditions of moist
sub-aerial erosion. Also, as is common in the mountain and hill physiography of
deserts generally, the structural features, almost unmasked by soil or vegetation
except for the characteristic “sand burial” around their bases, bear definite evi-
dence of their tectonic or plutonic origin.
(d) The Gawler and West Coast Ranges —The Gawler Ranges are formed
by a series of ridges, with many wide valleys, that run in an irregular way along
what might be regarded as the northern boundary of Eyre Peninsula. These
ranges are quite different in structure from any other of the ranges herein
described, due to their formation from igneous rocks (felspar porphyries) which
are classed by Ward as dykes, sills, and flows of pre-Cambrian time.
It is suggested that this relatively higher area is a westward continuation of
the up-warp of the Peterborough plateau, emphasised by the greater relative
erosional resistance of the porphyries, and that the same movements formed the
relative depression to the north that is now the site of “Lake” Gairdner and other
salt flats and “lagoons.” Howchin regards this range as one of a very ancient
and important series of east-west mountains, but the Gawler Ranges are certainly
quite distinct, structurally, from the Willouran Ranges and Kangaroo Island, with
which they have sometimes been bracketed. If the Gawler Ranges were not
formed in an up-warp during the later Tertiary, then we may regard them as a
residual monadnock ridge from the pre-Miocene peneplanation, possibly due to
differential resistance, rounded off by ages of arid-land erosion.
(e) The “Tent-Hills” of the Interior —\n a broad belt of country extending
northwards from Whyalla and Iron Knob to the northern boundary of the State,
and roughly marginal in the north to the Great Artesian Basin, there is a series
of flat-topped hills, locally known as “Tent Hills,” or “Table-top Hills.” Similar
isolated hills occur elsewhere in the interior. The shape is striking, in that they
are almost invariably flat-topped and steep-sided, with cliffs in the upper part of
their outline and extensive screes below.
lf all of these were, as some of them are, in level-bedded rocks of varying
erosional resistance, we should have the typical mesas and buttes (“Zeugen,”
Walther) of Central Asia, Western United States, and elsewhere. But this is not
the case; a wide variety of rock types and structures is found in these tent-hills.
The typical and well-known hill named Crown Point, approximately the geo-
metrical centre of Australia (Ward), is of contorted Permo-Carboniferous glacial
till; those in the neighbourhood of Port Augusta may be of steeply-folded Ordo-
vician sediments; others are of horizontal Ordovician sediments, some are of still
older rocks of varied structure; most of these features are formed in Cretaceous
or Tertiary sediments. In spite of the wide variety of structures and of erosional
resistance, the type of hill does not vary greatly. The capping material, according
to Ward (Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., vol. xlix., p. 76), is a silicified sandstone or
conglomerate, an arid land feature, and this capping is largely independent of the
nature of the underlying rocks.
It appears to be undoubted that the level tops of the tent-hills are the relics
of an uplifted peneplain, and that the intermediate plains and valleys that now
Zl
separate these remnants were laid down by running water, but widened and
deepened during long ages of insolation and wind erosion, with the occasional
work of thunderstorms and floods. In the latter-day usage of the word, the lower
level area might perhaps be called a second peneplain.
(f£) The Volcanic Hills of the South-East—The only volcanic hills of South
Australia are found in the extreme south-eastern corner of the State, and are
genetically associated with the great outburst of volcanic activity that occurred
in central and western Victoria in the late Tertiary (? Pliocene to Recent), There
are also some minor residual volcanic hills in Kangaroo Island. The South-
Eastern group includes several smali centres of eruption: Mounts Gambier,
Schank, Muirhead, Burr, McIntyre, Edward, The Bluff, etc, (see fig. 5). It is
likely that Mounts Gambier and Schank were among the latest of these volcanic
foci to be in operation,
Mount Schank is a fine example of a symmetrical crater of tufaceous
materials, partially collapsed. Mount Gambier consisted of three or more
tufaceous cones, with subsequent large-scale collapse below the water-level of the
sub-artesian basin that occurs here, forming a series of steep-sided and picturesque
lakes. Several of the neighbouring volcanic hills, from The Bluff to Mount Muir-
head, lie along a fault scarp, with which there may have been some genetic associa-
tion ; the evidence at The Bluff suggests that the faulting was, in part, subsequent
to the vulcanicity.
VI—PLAINS AND PLATEAUS.
The greater part of South Australia, as may be seen from fig. 3 B, consists
of vast plains less than 500 feet in elevation, or of similar wide plains gently rising
from 500 to 1,000 feet or more in elevation and consequently in places referred
to as plateaus. Structurally, they require but brief description, though they vary
greatly in mode of origin,
(a) The North-western Plateau—This comprises the shaded area that
occupies roughly the north-western quadrant of fig. 3B, excluding the Musgrave
Ranges in the extreme north-west (also called the North-west Plains), These
vast expanses are little known; parts of them are quite unknown. As far as our
records show, they are an area of very ancient rocks, largely a crystalline complex,
structurally stable, peneplaned by ages of sub-aerial erosion dominantly aeolian
in the latest phases, of very low relief, and practically without watercourses.
Along the eastern side, margining the Eyre and Torrens basins, there are some
wide, sand-floored valleys, separated by the characteristic “tent-hills” already
described. Elsewhere the surface is, for the most part, a series of monotonous
parallel (N.W.-S.E.) stationary sand dunes, or rough gibber (stony) plains,
varied with clay-pans, with here and there low granitic outcrops and accompanying
rock-holes.
(b) The Plains of the North-East.—These include the Lake Eyre and Lake
Frome basins, superficially resembling, but in all other ways contrasting with, the
North-west Plateau, For the most part this area is one of almost level-bedded
Mesozoic rocks; these belong to the Great Artesian Basin of Australia, and the
whole appears to be, structurally, a sagged or sunken area, level-bedded in the
interior and more or less up-warped towards the margins, The surface has a
reticulation of stream courses, described in a later section (see fig. 6). Apart
from these streams, with their accompanying billabongs and lagoons, which are in
places causing fairly rapid siltation along their banks, the area is one of drifting
(bare) or stationary (plant-covered) dunes, of gibber plains, or of mulga and
salt-bush plains. It is difficult to say to what extent this area has undergone
normal sub-aerial erosion; there is some evidence that it has actually been com-
pletely peneplaned once, with later uplift and a second fairly-advanced cycle of
22
planation, The extent of the latest phase of aeolian erosion, as compared with
the normal type of sub-aerial erosion, is not yet known,
(c) The Nullarbor Plains —The location and size of these plains are shown
in fig. 3A. This physiographic feature is sui generis. Here and there on this
vast level, treeless, streamless, limestone expanse, there is indeed some variety to
be found, but it does not present itself to the casual observer. The East-West
(transcontinental ) railway line, which traverses these plains, runs for hundreds
of miles in a direct, unbending line. The area was a broad gulf in Miocene times,
and may: have been continuously so from the Cretaceous period, In post-Miocene
times it was slowly uplifted, without any apparent warping or fracturing, except
along and close to the coastal margin. Its northern margin is now 500-600 feet
above sea level. The surface is mainly of rough limestone, covered by a general
development of nodular and concretionary lime deposit, with intervening patches
of shallow soil carrying low salt-bush and blue-bush. It is distinct from either
of the two previously described areas of plain, being a plain of marine deposition,
uplifted, without definite traces of planation. In times of exceptional rains, the
water lies about in vast “lakes” until it percolates or evaporates away. There are
some minor karst features, but these are few and far between.
(d) The Mallee Plains —The Mallee area is usually defined on an ecological,
climatic and production basis. Wood (Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., vol. lii., p. 359)
describes the area as bounded by the 8-inch winter isohyet on the north and the
20-inch winter isohyet on the south (map, page 361, loc. cit.), But all workers
do not agree; see also Kenyon (“The Victorian Mallee,’ Govt. Printer, Melbourne,
1923) and Chapman (“Victorian Naturalist,” January, 1922). For our purposes
we may consider the Mallee Plains (see fig. 3A) as including: Eyre Peninsula
(The “West Coast”), Yorke Peninsula (Y.P.), and that area of plains traversed
by the Lower Murray Valley, which lies east of the Mount Lofty Ranges, and
south of the Olary highlands, and bounded by the eastern border of the State.
The southern boundary extends from the Coorong eastward to the Victorian
border. The boundary between the Mallee and the “South-East” is not readily
defined; there is no structural or physiographic change; as we approach areas of
higher rainfall to the south, the characteristic “mallee” gives way to sheoak,
stringybark, banksia, and bracken, and this merges into the different and charac-
teristic plains of “The South-East.”
Structurally, the Mallee Plains are arcas of horizontally bedded Miocene and
later limestones, elsewhere a peneplaned area of ancient crystalline (Pre-
Cambrian) rocks that were once possibly covered with such Tertiary limestones,
but have lost them by sub-aerial erosion. The plains are characteristically areic.
Over the Mallee areas there is much recent alluvium and widespread deposits of
reddish, wind-blown sands; in general, wide clayey or sandy valleys alternate
with low calcareous or sandy ridges. Alihough the relict is so slight, there is
quite a variety of land forms of economic interest, but not yet terminologically
defined.
(e) The South-Eastern Plains —As described in the previous paragraphs,
these plains emerge from the more dry Mallee Plains to the north. They consist
of level-bedded limestones (Miocene) with occasional low outcrops of underlying
Pre-Cambrian bedrock. Towards the Victorian border, to the east, the limestones
are many hundreds of feet thick. The limestone plain has been uplifted and
faulted. At least two of these faults, parallel to the coastline, have affected the
physiographic development of this area, and are still marked in part by low fault-
scarps (see fig. 5).
Another remarkable feature of this area is,a belt, nearly 50 miles in width,
of successive dune and swale—ancient sand dune ridges that are now dignified
om ON \ le
N Morambyy Ck. ae
\ e a es w
SI A
Lacepede IF
bay = FE
‘Oo
|
g O
>
‘lt i]
—— —“RANGES”
© VOLCANIC FOCI.
y DRAINAGE TO SEA.
20 Miles=
rat
C.Northiimberlana
Fig. 5,
Sketch map of the south-eastern areas of South Australia, showing the
series of ancient dunes, inter-dune swamps and flats, volcanic foci, fault
scarps (Fl and F2), and the main visible outlets of the underground
drainage,
24
by the name of “ranges” (Woakwine Range, Avenue Range, etc.). These dune
ridges (N.W.-S.I.) run normal to the natural fall of the land (S.-W.), and thus
interfere with the development of the natural drainage system. Owing to the
soluble character of the limestones an incipient karst formation is developed in
places, with dolines, collapsed caves, etc. A series of small volcanic cones in the
more southerly part adds further variety to this region. A great part of the inter-
dune regions consist of recent alluvial deposits, and there are also widespread
swamps and lagoons.
Physiographically, this area of ancient dunes is one of extraordinary interest.
It appears that the series of ridges shown in fig. 5, with their intervening swales
and lagoons, represent a long-continued series of ancient “Coorongs,’ the most
ancient being that which lies nearest to the Naracoorte scarp. The last-named
feature may be noted in fig. 5, as the ridge (F2) which is intersected by the
Morambro, Naracoorte, and Mosquito creeks. Professor Douglas W. Johnson,
of Columbia University, who has given special attention to these forms (vide
“Shore Processes,” chapter ix.), was attracted by the data in the possession of the
writer concerning the stranded dune ridges of the South-East. It would appear
that South Australia has in this area a physiographic feature of very high interest
from both the scientific and the economic points of view, and one worthy of
intensive study. A detailed study of the physiography of this area must have an
important bearing on the “drainage problems” of the region,
From data kindly made available by Dr. Keith Ward, the writer has drawn
five east-west sections across these dunes and swales. Applying to these the
criteria laid down by Professor Johnson, the evidence favours a long period of
steady uplift of the land.
(£) The Plains of the Sunklands.—These are: (a) in the Lake Torrens
Sunkland, the Torrens Plains; and (b) in the Spencer-Vincent Sunkland, the
Adelaide-Wakefield Plains, the Broughton-Pirie Plains, and the Arno-Cowell
Plains. All these plains are built of thick deposits of recent fresh-water alluvium,
in some cases many hundreds of feet in depth. In the Torrens Sunkland the
alluvium is less well-graded, and the land is of a low economic value owing to the
arid conditions. In the Spencer-Vincent Sunkland the three tracts of plain men-
tioned are of considerable economic value, owing both to the character of the soils,
surfaces, and rainfall, and to the nearness to well-watered highlands and to
markets. This is most true of the Adelaide-Wakefield Plains, and least so of the
Arno-Cowell tract. The seaward margins of these alluvial plains are in some
parts shallow and muddy, with fringing mangroves ; in other parts there are broad
sand dunes. The writer has previously described the sand dunes that run from
Seacliff to Pelican Point, west of Adelaide, ag a northward projecting “spit,”
built gradually forward from base to tip. Further investigation shows that this
is so only in the more northerly part ; most of these dunes are simple parallel dunc
ridges. (See “Shore Processcs and Shoreline Development,” chapter ix.)
General Note re Plains —This brief survey has shown that, both from the
geological and the structural aspects, the six areas of plains described, which
appear so much alike on first inspection are, on close analysis, distinctly different
from one another. Each of these geological and structural facts has its
corresponding economic reactions. When consideration of these plains extends
to their climatic conditions and economic values, the differences are even more
pronounced.
VIIL—DRAINAGE SYSTEMS.
(a) General—By far the greater part of South Australia is streamless
(areic). In all our vast area of 380,000 square miles, there can scarcely be said
to be one permanent running stream carrying water that has fallen within our
boundaries. It might be thought, therefore, that an account of the drainage
25
systems could be dismissed with but brief mention and description. There are
several reasons why this is not the case :—
(i.) Where running water is rare and rainfall low, all streams become of
greater importance. In a land where water is the great need, every
source of supply must be known and exploited.
(ii.) In the arid areas of the State the rainfall is not only low, but it is
unreliable. In an area of average 5-inch rainfall, that amount of rain
may fall in a single day under monsoonal conditions. Thus devastat-
ing floods occur in the driest areas, and special types of arid-land
watercourses have developed—typical “wadys” in the foothills; wide,
sandy-floored, braided stream-courses in the plains. These have their
own physiographic and economic interest.
(iii.) Prior to the present arid cycle of the interior, and possibly prior to
the last great tectonic upliits that affected this area, there was one or
more pluvial periods in Central and Southern Australia. Stream
courses were then developed, as described by Professor Howchin in
his accounts of the “lost rivers” of the interior. (See A.A.A.S., Mel-
bourne, 1913, p. 174, and elsewhere),
(iv.) Finally, there lie within the boundaries of South Australia the last
400 miles of the course of the great River Murray, the Father of Aus-
tralian Rivers. The Murray has been fancifully compared with both
the Nile and the Mississippi, and with both of these it has characters
in common. But, much as rivers the world over resemble one another,
the Murray is really a river of its own kind—with characters all its
own, with its own scenic charm of form and colour, with unique
economic potentialities and problems. All this is particularly true of
the narrowly-restricted South Australian Murray Valley, rather than
of any other part of the course of that great river.
(b) The Lake Eyre Basin—In the general maps of South Australia the
outlines of the various drainage net-works, as preserved by the Lands Depart-
ment and other surveyors, are usually rendered almost undecipherable by the
necessary addition of roads, tracks, mountains, and other cartographic data.
It was, therefore, considered worth while, to assist in the independent con-
sideration of these important drainage networks, to prepare sketch maps of various
drainage areas clear of the embarrassment of other details.
As already described, the Lake Eyre Basin lies in an area of low and unreliable
summer (monsoonal) rainfall. Lake Eyre itself lies within the 5-inch rainfall line,
the most arid portion of Australia (note 10-in. isohyet, fig. 6). In the north centre
of the area is a large patch of drifting sand-dune desert, where there are no
stream courses whatever. For the rest we have a series of streams, chief of
which are the Finke, Diamentina (or Diamantina), and Cooper’s (Barcoo)
Systems, which run only in times of heavy flood. Characteristically, they are
wide, sandy-floored streams, wandcring almost aimlessly over the plains, but in
places depositing considerable depths of silt along their banks (4 feet in about
40 years at Burke’s Tree, Innamincka, vide Proc. Roy. Geog. Soc. S.A., Session
1927-8, p. 14).
For the greater part of the year such streams are dry, but along their courses,
in some places, valuable “waterholes” persist throughout the dry years. Adjoin-
ing such waterholes most of the ‘‘station” (ranch) settlement of these areas takes
place; in other places, potable water may be obtained in the sands of the dry bed.
Apart from the apparently “aimless” courses of these streams, their braided
character, their clay-bottomed waterholes, and the canal-like character of their
B
iz
{4
m
- «x
zr
een
Ve
100 120
A KEDON NEL
SCALE (Miles).
Q 20 4D 60 B80
Fig. 6.
Sketch map of portion of four States, to show the characteristic, wide-
spread endoreic system of the Lake Eyre basin. The 5-inch and 10-inch
isohyets are shown; Lake Eyre itself is 30-40 feet below sea level.
27
beds in some of the lower reaches, there are one or two other features worthy
of mention. One of these is the number of “tributary” streams, apparently with
a well-developed system, that no longer reach the parent stream unless in excep-
tional floods; these perhaps point back to the pluvial period before mentioned.
Another noteworthy feature is the remarkable stability of billabong channels,
such as Strzelecki Creek; Howchin thinks this was the original course of the
Cooper. A third feature is the occurrence of “lagoons” throughout the area—
basins that have gradually become silted up with the sediment carried by these
wi
=
5
3
<=
~
3
4)
V8)
3
ev
Zz
Scale -(miles)
20 40 ©0 80
Fig. 7.
Sketch map to show the North Flinders Ranges, with the Lake Torrens
and Lake Frome drainage networks. The chief faults are marked by bold
lines shaded on the side of the uplift, the almost straight Torrens Fault
on the west, and the two curving fault series bounding the Flinders
Horst. Except on the ranges, the rainfall is everywhere less than
10 inches per annum.
streams in flood time. The central “lakes,” such as Lake Eyre itself, come under
this heading.
Dr. Keith Ward has pointed out that the definite and regular stream pattern
of these rivers is found only on the areas of Cretaceous or older rocks. On the
sandy plains, braided and ill-defined courses are the rule. Where the Hay, Hale,
and Todd reach the outcrop of the Jurassic intake beds, their surface flow ceases.
As suggested by Winnecke in 1886, this is probably also the case with the Finke
28
River, which no longer (in Dr. Ward’s opinion) unttes with the waters of the
Macumba. See also Madigan’s account of the aerial reconnaissance of this area
(Trans. Roy. Geog. Soc. of A’asia, S.A. Branch, 1930 volume).
The most important physiographic fact regarding the Lake Eyre drainage
basin is, that it is largely tectonic in origin. We may follow Howchin in his hypo-
thesis that it was not always as it is now, but that this “basin” once continued
in a wide valley towards the south, with great streams, in either one or more
valleys, emptying into the occan towards what is now Gulf St. Vincent. Howchin
has shown that enormous deposits of fluviatile drift occur in various parts of the
State, and suggests that during the pluvial period great river courses did continue
southward. Certain it is that a contemplation of the geology and tectonics of the
southern part of the Lake Eyre Basin leaves one with the impression that a great
drainage system has here been frustrated, stopped, dammed back (see fig. 6).
This is particularly the case when one considers the remarkable termination of
Strzelecki Creek in a chain of lakes, lying normal to the stream course, along the
base of the lately (? Pleistocene) uplifted mountain masses there. This abnormal
physiographic feature had a pronounced influence on the history of the explora-
tion of the interior, greatly puzzling the early explorers.
(c) The Lake Torrens and Lake Frome Basins—Much that has been said
of the Lake Eyre drainage system applics also to the Lake Torrens and Frome
systems. Indeed, the Lake Frome drainage is really connected up with the Lake
Eyre System in that chaotic, futile, and uncertain manner that one finds where,
owing to the level character of the region and the mode of origin of the streams,
the latter have played but a small part in forming their courses and “valleys.”
These drainage systems are purely consequent upon, and closely reflect the
facts of, the later tectonic movements of the northern Tlinders Ranges. In the
centre there has been the uplift of the horst of the Flinders, with the down-
sinking of the Torrens Sunkland to the west, the latter being terminated on the
western side by the Torrens Fault. To the east there is the less well-defined Lake
Frome Sunkland, which rises gently towards Broken Hill and the Olary Spur.
It would appear that the streams are mainly subsequent to, and consequent
upon, these movements. It is true that within the Flinders Ranges the stream
valleys cut across the beds and act independently of structures in many cases,
suggesting that their courses were begun on the old peneplain surface of the rising
Flinders, In other cases, as at Wilpena Pound, the rock structures have greatly
affected the stream courses. It is likely that a study of the Sicecus River will
provide information of special interest regarding the physiographic history of
the area.
The appearance of the Hookina and Parachilna gorges leads one to suspect
a Jater and more rapid uplift of a segment of the western horst, as in the lower
Mount Lofty Ranges,
a
Fig. 10.
Sketch map of portion of South Australia to show the stream courses of the
southern Mount Lofty Ranges. The 500-foot contour line is shown, and the
chief reservoirs are indicated by black triangles.
32
from south to north, At one season these wide plains may be rich with waving
wheat crops, at another they are vast sheets of moving water, and yet again, and
more often, bare brown dust and mirage.
(e) The River Broughton—This stream passes through one of the most
productive wheat and wool areas of the State. As shown by fig. 9, it has a
drainage pattern of a curious and interesting type, testifying to the influence of
varied successive factors in its history. The north-south “ridge-and-valley”
structure of the lower ranges hereabouts is remarkably well shown in Crystal
Brook, Rocky River, Bundaleer Creek, the Hutt and Hill Rivers, ete. Whether
these important structural features are due to “tilted blocks” (which is commonly
believed), or to differential erosion of hard beds along their strike (which is also
possible), has not been determined. The main course of this stream is strikingly
different from most of its tributaries, and it may possibly be antecedent.
A wide area of deltaic plain, from Port Broughton ta Port Pirie, has been
deposited by this vigorous stream. In times of high flood, portion of the waters
of the Broughton flow once more into the old Pirie Creek (the harbour of Port
Pirie) near Solomontown. It is a fortunate fact for the harbour of Port Pirie
that this stream deserted its old estuary, thus greatly minimising the difficulties
of siltage and the cost of dredging at that important port.
(f) The Light, Gawler, Torrens, Onkaparinga, etec-—The portion of South
Australia that is shown in fig. 10, namely, that part which lies between the eastern
shores of Gulf St. Vincent and the last stretch of the Murray River (from Morgan
to the Mouth), is the most favourable part of the State for the study of normal
sub-aerial erosion. The legal name of this area, no longer used, is “Sturtia.” It
is the only extensive exoreic area in the State, and even then, as may be seen in
the figure, many small streams die out on the alluvial plains. It is to this area
that the greater number of the people of South Australia look for their water
supply; it is in the upper valleys of these streams that most of the storage reser-
voirs are, and will! be, built.
Much has been written regarding certain of these streams, particularly the
Torrens and the Onkaparinga, and it is likely that we are approaching a general
agreement regarding the manner of their origin, and of their age. It may be seen
from fig. 10 to what a great extent the structure of the ranges has influenced the
character of the stream-pattern; this is in favour of a consequent origin for the
streams.
On the other hand, we have the lacts that the ranges are in general higher
on the western side and with dominant north-south structure lines; yet most of
the basins drain to the west.
The hypothesis that appears to best meet this difficulty is that there have
been two stages of uplift, as elscwhcre outlined, that the stream courses are in
part tectonic, in part consequent, and in part antecedent. Under this hypothesis,
it is conceived that the streams were formed on the rising limestone overmass at
the time of the first uplift (fig. 4). The block structures of the ranges imposed
something of a tectonic character on the valleys, and when these streams had
reached the maturity of the second peneplain, they were antecedent in relation to
the Pleistocene uplift, hence the gorges, etc. There may also have been capture
by the stronger western streams in both the Light and the Para basins.
Within the hills themselves the relief is high and the problems are many. A
general fact is the contrast between the young topography of the strcam valleys
in the western part of the ranges, and the gentle, mature topography in their
upstream areas. This applies more particularly to the country around Mount
Pleasant, which represents a stage of erosion, in very resistant crystalline and
33
Archaean rocks, far older than that of any other part of the southern Mount Lofty
Ranges. Here again is evidence of two distinct and widely-separated stages of
uplift.
The “toe of the peninsula,” from Myponga Creek and Inman Valley south-
west to Cape Jervis, is a wonderland of physiographic interest that is almost
untouched, The influence of rock types and rock structures of the mast diverse
kinds is to be seen here. Ancient pre-Permian landscapes are exposed, and
incorporated into present-day features. Howchin has shown that the Finniss, °
Inman, and Hindmarsh Valleys have in part exhumed a pre-Permo-Carboniferous
glacial landscape, and are thus in part super-imposed on the buried pre-Cambrian
rocks. Fault coasts, marine erosion, valleys and ridges in extreme youth and high
relief, have combined to keep this area in an almost unsettled state, and it remains
a most promising place wherein to search for keys for the unlocking of the
structural secrets of the Mount Lofty Ranges.
(g) The Lower Murray Valley.—lIt is not proposed to enter into the physio-
graphic history of the Lower Murray in any detail; on this matter the writer has
been collecting detailed geological and geographic information for other purposes.
It is appropriate, however, to discuss in a broad way, some of the factors that may
have determined the present course of the river. Tate’s threefold division of the
Lower Murray Valley still holds good, though it may be noted that the first
observer, Charles Sturt, also detected the critical importance of Overland Corner.
(See also Geological Notes, South Australian Almanack, 1841.)
Tate’s divisions are: (1) The Lacustrine, from the Mouth (Encounter Bay)
up to Wellington; (2) The Gorge, in marine Tertiary limestones from Wellington
to Overland Corner; (3) A much wider valley, cut through lacustrine beds, irom
Overland Corner to the border of the State.
Professor Howchin (Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., vol. liii., 1929, p. 167)
presents valuable evidence, and discusses various possibilities regarding the
physiographic history of the Lower Murray. If we consider only the precipitous,
cliff-bordered, mile-wide gorge in the level-bedded Tertiary limestones between
Overland Corner and Wellington, it is impossible to regard this as dating back
to the close of the period of Miocene deposition and the beginning of the sub-
sequent land emergence. It is difficult even to picture this gorge as one dating
from the early Pleistocene, when one considers the mighty valleys carved
out in harder rocks by lesser rivers during Pleistocene time. Not that any worker
has definitely suggested that the Murray Gorge is either Miocene or Pleistocene
inage, Although it has been called an old river, on account of its very low grade,
it has many of the characteristics of youthfulness.
The Pleistocene (fluviatile and lacustrine) beds through which the river
valley runs above Overland Corner, and whose sands and gravels have been so
widespread over the area, may indeed have covered the whole of the Mallee lime-
stones, and in a great estuarine pre-Lower-Murray period they may have extended
well to the west over the area where the Mount Lofty Ranges are now. It was
only by depression below base level, with a probable covering of alluvial sediments,
that the Murray limestones could have been preserved.
Meanwhile the waters of the Darling, Murrumbidgee, Lachlan, and other
contributors sent down their silt to the great central area, somewhat more
vigorously and consistently than the Frome and Cooper do to the Lake Eyre de-
pression to-day.
With the continuation of the general uplift that included the formation of the
Mount Lofty Ranges, the limestones of the Murray plains commenced slowly to
come into the picture; but there were as yet no limestone beds sufficiently
~
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Fig. 11.
Plan of the Lower Murray River, showing the course of the stream, the
lakes, and the Coorong; also the more significant (approximate) contours of
the adjoining country.
35
uplifted to enable a gorge to be cut into them. The uplifting of the Murray River
limestones appears to have been remarkably uniform, and one may travel along
the river cliffs for miles and miles without noting any appreciable deviation from
the horizontality of the beds. Nevertheless, careful observation shows that there
were certain irregularities in the movements of uplift, the evidence and the effects
of which are distinctly to be seen today :—
Ci.) The uplift was greater near the Mount Lofty Ranges to the west,
and the beds underlying the Murray Mallee were warped gently down-
wards towards the north and the east.
(1i.) There was a general emergence of the whole limestone area, and of
its covering burden of fluviatile and lacustrine sediments.
(iii.) Parallel to the eastern Mount Lofty Faults, there occurred some faults
or warps in the Tertiaries themselves; there is good evidence that one
of these runs almost N.-S., east of Sedan, 100 feet high, still visible
as a gentle scarp. Another parallel warp downwards to the east is
believed to have marked the present course of the Murray between
Morgan and Chucka Bend. As may be seen at the North-west Bend,
this warp involved a 5° dip due east in the otherwise horizontally-
bedded limestones,
(iv.) There was a third more gentle easterly dip at Overland Corner, a
feature of very high importance, and with excellent field evidence.
(v.) At the same time a fold or upwarp took place parallel with the present
coastline, north-west-—south-east; this may be seen as a scarp at
Siruan and Naracoorte (see fig. 5, F2), and it continues north-west
into what is known as the Marmon Jabuk Range and onwards (see
contour lines in fig. 11). Because of this upward fold the Miocene
Tertiarics, etc., already given a gentle plunge to the east, were also
given a gradual dip to the northward.
While these changes were taking place, the waters of the great contributing
rivers of New South Wales and Victoria had combined to form the Lower Murray.
With uplift, this stream commenced to cut into its own alluvial beds, and in the
more uplifted areas (to the west and south) completely destroyed them.
East of the Overland Corner dip, the soft alluvial overmass has not yet been
stripped away, and still protects the buried limestones. But the river in these
softer rocks is enabled to swing and sweep in an almost unrestricted way, and we
thus get, above Overland Corner the wide valleys and fertile slopes that are of
such great economic importance to the State in the Cobdogla, Berri, and Ren-
mark areas.
During the process of side-swinging in the incoherent fluviatile beds, the
river has moved both south and north, On the north there is no limiting factor,
but on the south, near Loxton, and between Loxton and Overland Corner, the
down-cutting river met with the more resistant, gently-plunging, submerged
Tertiary limestones, and thus was deflected northward from the Great Pyap Bend,
and directed north-west to the place where the river had become entrenched in the
limestones at Overland Corner. Possibly the farthest upstream point where the
underlying marine limestones are seen is at very low levels at Kaesler’s Cliffs, below
the old Bookpurnong Woolshed landing, where J, F. Stasinowsky, of Loxton,
collected a whale’s scapula, large molluscan casts, etc,
In the gorge that is wholly limestone, from Overland Corner downstream,
swinging and sweeping are more difficult, but the work is carried steadily on, and
36
the remarkably even parallelism of the sides of the gorge testifies to the general
evenness of the erosive work done here. The minor tilt or warp that ran through
Morgan, which was possibly reflected in the one-time overlying lacustrine and
fluviatile beds, would be sufficient to deflect the river and to send it on that other-
wise inexplicably sudden turn to the southward. Thus we have an explanation for
the sharp change of direction of the river at North-west Bend, whence the pre-
cipitous mile-wide gorge runs almost due south for about 50 miles, keeping parallel
to the tectonic lines of the Mount Lofty horst, and (it is suggested) following
the line of a surface feature due to a structural break in the Miocene limestones
and later sediments of the area.
Apart from a minor deflection at Big Bend, where barely hidden Cam-
brian rocks may have influenced the course of the stream, there is no important
change of direction until the river meets the upwarped (or upwarping) ridge that
is in part indicated by the Marmon Jabuk Range. This would perhaps account for
the wide swing westerly from Chucka Bend (see fig. 11) that carries the river
round to Tailem Bend, where it again follows the normal fall of the country
towards the sea.
37
CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE ORCHIDOLOGY OF PAPUA AND AUSTRALIA.
By R. S. Rocers, M.A., M.D., F.L.S.
[Read May 8, 1930.|
Mediocalcar (§ Brevicalcar) papuanum, Rogers, n. sp. Rhizoma teres,
repens, elongatum, radicans, vaginis fibrosis tubulosis obtectum, radicibus elongatis
filiformibus breve pilosis subrectis. Pseudobulbi minuti, teretes, ad 2 mm. lati,
brevissimi, cum rhizomate arte adnati, unifoliati, parte libera discoidea. Folia
coriacea, glabra, elliptico-lanceolata vel oblongo-lanceolata, apice obtusa, leviter
bilobulata cum mucrone minuto interposito, basi in petiolum brevem contracta,
carinata, multistriata, circiter 5-6 cm, longa, 0°7-1-7 cm. lata. Inflorescentiae
uniflorae (semper?), circa 4°5 cm, longae, pedunculo bracteis magnis amplis acutis
foliaceis imbricatis obsesso. Bractea floralis adpressa, minuta, acuta, pedicellum
amplectens. Flores in genere majusculi, basi extrinsecus coccinei, labello Luteo.
Ovarium cum pedicello gracillimum, circa 1:1 cm. longum. Sepala usque ad
terliam partem apicalem in tubum urceolatum antice leviter ventricosum connata,
subacuta, circiter 1 cm. longa, latiuscula, 5-nervia. Petala libera, sepalis acqui-
longa sed multo angustiora, erecta, linearia, 3-nervia, subacuta. Labellum ad
columnam suberectum, circa 9 mm. longum, unguiculatum, pedi columnae adnatum,
unge basi utrinque alato, supra medium in laminam late ovalem saccatam dilatatum,
infra medium 5-nervia, apice acuminatum. Calcar rotundatum, brevissimum.
Columna labello brevior, in pedem perbrevem producta, versus apicem alata.
Anthera cucullata. Pollinia 8.
Plant epiphytic. Rhizome terete, creeping, elongated, radicant, covered with
fibrous tubular sheaths: roots elongated, filiform, almost straight, shortly pilose.
Pseudobulbs minute, terete, up to 2 mm. in diameter, very short, firmly adnate
lengthwise with the rhizome, unifoliate, the free part disc-like, Leaves leathery,
glabrous, elliptical-lanceolate or oblong-lanceolate, obtuse at the apex, slightly
bilobulate with a minute mucrone interposed between the lobules, contracted at
the base into a short petiole, carinate, multistriate, about 5-6 cm. long, 0:7-1-7 cm.
wide. Inflorescences single flowered in my specimen, about 4°5 cm. long, the
peduncle completely covered with large voluminous acute foliaceous inibricate
bracts increasing in size from below upwards. Floral bract adpressed, minute,
acute, clasping the base of the pedicel. Flowers rather large for the genus, red
on the outside at the base with a yellow labellum. Combined ovary and pedicel
very slender, about 1-1 cm. long. Sepals connate in the lower two-thirds forming
an urn-like tube slightly ventricose at the base in front, subacute at the apices,
about 1 cm. long, rather wide, 5-nerved. Petals free, as long but much narrower
than the sepals, erect, linear, 3-nerved, subacute. Labellum about 9 mm. long,
adnate to the foot of the column by a rather wide claw, claw auriculate at each side
of the base, suberect, thereafter somewhat oblong 5-nerved, dilated above the
middle into a deeply concave widely oval saccate lamina, acuminate at the apex.
Spur very short for the genus, rotund, sac-like. Column shorter than the labellum,
produced into a very short foot, winged on each side of the stigma near the apex,
Anther cucullate, bilocular ; pollinia 8, two super-imposed pairs on each side.
Papua. Owen Stanley Range on Nomi-Ake Divide, Salawakel at 7,000
feet. C. E. Lane-Poole, No. 526, November 23, 1923.
Of the 39 species of this remarkable genus published up to the present, only
one (M. Lawesti, Schltr.) has been reported from Papua, The most westerly
38
representative is found in Amboina, and another has recently been described by
J. J. Smith from the neighbouring island of Serang (Moluccas). The most
easterly species is M. paradoxum, Schitr., from Samoa, and the most northerly
is M. ponapense, Schitr., from the Caroline Islands. All other known species are
indigenous to New Guinea.
The flowers of the new species appear to be closely related to those of M.
monticola, Schltr., but the plant differs very materially in the number and shape
of the leaves, and in the characters of the pseudobulbs, as well as in certain floral
details.
Spathoglottis alpina, Rogers, n. sp. Terrestris, erecta, subvalida, usque
ad 60 cm. alta, Pseudobulbi ovoidei, circa 2 cm. longi, 1°25 cm. dia metro, vaginis
fibrosis omnino absconditi, circa 3-foliati. Radices elongatae, flexuosae, fibrosae.
Folia erecta, anguste elliptico-lanceolata, acuminata, glabra, costata, basi sensim
in petiolum costatum angustata, usque ad 60 em. longa, medio circa 1-1-1°6 cm.
lata. Inflorescentiae circa 2, racemosae, erectae, foliis multo breviores, puberulae,
plutiflorae. Flores purpurei, extus velutini, majusculi, circa 3-6 cm, diametro.
Seginenta perianthii patentia, Sepalum dorsale ellipticum, obtusiusculum, 7-
nervium, circa 1°8 cm. longum, 0°6 cm. latum. Sepala lateralia subacuta, 7-nervia,
circa 1°8 cm. longa, 0°55 cm. lata. Petala ovalia, subobtusa, 9-netvia, sepalis
tenuiora, circa 1:7 cm, longa, 0°8 cm, lata. Labellum sessile, alte trilobatum,
explanatum circa 1°25 cm. longum, inter apices loborum lateralium circa
1-4-1°6 cm, latum; lobus intermedius flabelliformis, marginibus integris, 7-nervius,
basin versus sensim contractus, circa 1-0 cm. longus, infra apicem 4-5 mm. latus,
imo basi 1:0 mm. latus, apice inapiculato rotundato admodum obtuso, basi inter
lobos laterales callo bilobato carnoso conspicuo molliter verrucoso ornatus, circum
basin calli sparsim hirsutus; lobi laterales anguste oblongo-falcati, obtusiusculi,
intermedio lobo, late divaricata, multo breviores, circa 8-9 mm. longi, 2 mm. lati.
Columna glabra, erecta, gracilis, leviter incurvata, circa 1:2 cm. longa, apicem
versus anguste alata, pede fere obsoleto, basi callis duobus pyramidalibus carnosis
instructa. Ovarium cum pedicello gracile, teres superne sensim dilatatum, puberu-
lum, usque ad 4 cm. longum.
Plant erect, rather vigorous, attaining the height of 60 cm. Pseudobulbs
avoid, about 2 em. long, 1:25 cm. in diameter, entirely hidden beneath fibrous
sheaths, 3-leaved. Leaves erect, narrowly elliptical-lanceolate, actuminate, longi-
tudinally ribbed, gradually narrowing at the base into a long-ribbed petiole,
attaining the length of 60 cm, Inflorescences racemose, about 2, erect, much
shorter than the leaves, puberulous, several-flowered. Flowers purple, velvety on
the outside, rather large, about 3-6 cm. in diameter. Perianth segments spread-
ing, Norsal sepal elliptical, rather obtuse, 7-nerved, about 1'8 cm. long, 0°6 cm.
wide. Lateral sepals subacute, 7-nerved, about 1:8 cm. long, 0°55 cm. wide.
Petals oval, rather obtuse, 9-nerved, of thinner texture than the sepals, about
1:7 cm. long, 08 cm. wide. Labellum sessile, deeply three-lobed, when spread out
about 1-25 cm. long, between the apices of the lateral lobes about 1-4-1°6 em.
wide; intermediate lobe flabelliform, margins entire, 7-nerved, gradually con-
tracted towards the base, about 1°0 cm. long from its junction with the side lobes,
4-5 mm, wide just below the apex, 1:0 mm. wide at the very base, the apex
rounded, quite blunt inapiculate, provided at the base almost between the lateral
lobes with a bilobed fleshy conspicuous softly warty dark callus with a few sparse
hairs around the base of the callus; lateral lobes narrowly oblong-falcate, rather
obtuse, widely divaticate, much shorter than the middle lobe, about 8-9 mm. long,
2 mm. wide, Column glabrous, crect, slender, slightly incurved, about 1-2 cm.
long, narrowly winged towards the apex, foot rudimentary, provided with two
glabrous pryamidal fleshy calli at the attachment to the labellum. Ovary with
39
pedicel slender, terete, gradually widening into a narrow ovary above, puberulous,
3-4 cm. long.
Papua. Nomi River, on the edge of a limestone precipice, altitude
7,000 feet, C. E. Lane-Poole, No. 529, November 23, 1923.
The genus Spathoglottis is richly represented in the Island of New Guinea,
which may be regarded as its centre of dispersion, but only a few forms have
hitherto been reported from British Papua, vz.:-—S. stenophylia, Ridl., S. papuana,
Bailey, and its var. pubeiflora, Rogers and White, and S. Lane-Poolei, Rogers.
schlechter, who has paid special aitention to the genus under natural condi-
tions, states that the species diminish markedly in number as we ascend the moun-
tains. The new species is apparently rather closely related to S. parviflora,
Kranzl., another alpine form, but differs from it in the shape of the intermediate
lobe of the labellum and also in other floral details.
Phreatia (§ Bulbosae) robusta, Rogers, n. sp. Pro genere robustissima,
ad 33 cm. alta; basi foliorum senilium basibus persistentibus obsessa. Pseudo-
bulbi cirea 2 cm. lati. Folia aliquot, equitantia, glabra, erecta vel subpatentia,
linearia, ad 33 cm. longa, circa 2°5 cm. lata, superne subconduplicativa, apicibus
obtusiuscula subinaequaliter bilobulata; costa media carinata, utrimque nervis
minoribus pluribus. Inflorescentiae glabrae, folia aequantes vel excedentes, laxe
multiflorae, semper (?) nutantes, Bracteae subulato-acuminatae, circa 4-6 mm.
longae. Flores minimi, numerosissimi, in racemo elongato. Ovarium circa 2 mm.
longum, clavatum in pedicello tentiore circa 2:5 mm, longo, Perianthii segmenta
eleganter reticulata, l-nervia, plus minusve erecta. Sepalum dorsale erectum,
late ovatum, concavum, subacutum, sepalis lateralibus angustius, circa 1*2 mm.
longum, 0°75 mm. latum. Sepala lateralia libera, erecta, oblique ovata, circa
1:2 mm. longa, circa 1:0 mm. lata, subacuta, cum pede gynostemii mentum brevissi-
mum rotundatum formantia. Petala erecta, elliptica vel ovalia, sepalis minora,
circa 10 mm. longa, circa 0°6 mm. lata. Labellum sublate unguiculatum, cum
pede gynostemii tenaciter articulatum, integrum, cuneato-lunatum, apice minute
papillosum leviter recurvum, 3-nervium, basi concavum minute bicallosum, latera
columnae amplectens. Columna brevissima, dorso convexa, basi in pedem latism
producta, clinandrio alte excavato. Anthera operculata, incumbens, dente con-
spicuo in margine posteriore clinandrii mobile affixa. Pollinia 8, pyriformia,
apicibus materia viscida cohaerentia. Rostellum erectum, antheram acquans,
bipartitum, laciniis chelatis; discus non viditus. Stigma transverse ovale.
Plant very robust for the genus, my specimen 33 em. high, with a thickened
pseudobulb about 2-0 cm. wide, and covered at the base with the persistent bases
of old leaves. Leaves several, equitant, glabrous, rather thick, linear, erect or
somewhat spreading, the lamina subconduplicate, traversed by a prominent mid-
rib with several minor nerves on each side, apex rather blunt and unequally
bilobed, up to 33 cm. long, 2°5 cm. wide. Inflorescences glabrous, equal or some-
times exceeding the leaves in length, loosely multiflowered, always (?) nodding.
Bracts subulate-acuminate, about 4-6 mm. long. Flowers minute, very numerous,
in an elongated cylindrical raceme, pedicellate. Ovary about 2 mm. long, clavate
on a delicate pedicel about 2'5 mm, long. Segments of perianth delicately reticu-
late, I-nerved, more or less erect. Dorsal sepal erect, widely ovate, concave, sub-
acute, narrower than the lateral sepals, about 1:2 mm. long, 0°75 mm. wide.
Lateral sepals free, erect or suberect, obliquely ovate, about 1:2 mm. long, 1-0 mm.
wide, subacute, decurrent on the foot of the column so as to form with the latter
a very short rounded mentum. Petals erect, elliptical or oval, smaller than the
sepals, about 1-0 mm. long, 0°6 mm. wide. Labellum rather widely clawed, firmly
attached to the foot of the column, entire, cuneate-lunate, 3-nerved, the wide
40
crescentic apex minutely papillose and slightly recurved, clasping the sides of the
column, concave at the base, with a minute rounded callus at the proximal end of
each outer nerve on the disc. Column very short, stout, semiterete, produced at
the base into a rather wide foot. Clinandrium deeply excavated. Anther oper-
culate, incumbent, movably attached by a filament to a rather conspicuous tooth on
the posterior border of the clinandrium. Pollinia 8, pyriform, their apices
attached by transparent glutinous strands apparently to the rostellum. Rostellum
erect, equal to the anther in height, bipartite, the two divisions chelate; disc not
seen. Stigma transversely oval,
Queensland. Near Cairns, collected by A. Beck. Flowered Botanic
Gardens, Brisbane, January, 1930. Forwarded by C. T. White, Government
Botanist.
Owing to the intensive study and publications of certain botanists, particularly
Dr. Schlechter, Dr. J. J. Smith and Mr. H. N. Ridley, the genus Phreatia, Lindl.,
has suddenly increased during quite recent years from a very few to approxi-
mately 225 species. It is widely distributed from India, across the Malay Archi-
pelago, Papuasia, Moluccas, Celebes, Philippines, Formosa, Australia, New Cale-
donia, New Hebrides, Fiji and other Pacific Islands. New Guinea alone claims
not less than 119 species, and this must be regarded as its probable centre of
disscmination. It is, however, but poorly represented in Australia. Up to the
present only two species have been recorded on our census, vig.: Phreatia
limenophylax (Endl,), Bentham, and P. Baileyana, Schltr. [= P. pusilla (Bail.) J,
Rolfe. Both of these, like the majority of species belonging to this genus, are
extremely dwarfed plants. The former was originally discovered by Ferdinand
Bauer on Norfolk Island, and was carefully illustrated by him in a plate now in
possession of the Vienna Herbarium. It was described by Endlicher under the
name of Plesxaure limenophylax. Subsequently, when writing the sixth volume of
the Flora Australiensis, Bentham became the innocent victim of a discreditable
deception by H. G. Reichenbach, which led him to publish his belief, that the
mainland plant, found by Dallachy at Rockingham Ray, Queensland, was identical
with Bauer’s plant from Norfolk Island. This belief was founded upon error,
an error which was accepted and followed by Pfitzer and many eminent botanists
until the true facts of the case were published by F. Kranzlin in 1911 in his pre-
fatory remarks to the “Dendrobiinae,” part IL, page 12, and again in his mono-
graph on the genus Phreatia in the same work, pp. 20’and 21, where he also pub-
lishes Bauer’s original illustrations.
In describing the Rockingham Bay plant, Bentham states that he had not seen
the pollen-masses as the flowers were too advanced, He makes no further refer-
ence to the column. Kranzlin is of opinion that this plant was an Oberonia, I
have had the opportunity to examine “the best” of Dallachy’s specimens in the
Melbourne Ilerbarium. It was collected in 1870, and was in a state of bad
preservation, In the most promising of the three flowers still attached, the upper
portion of the column and, of course, the pollinarium, were absent. There was
no indication of a column-foot or of a mentum. This lends colour to Kranzlin’s
suggestion that the plant was not a Phreatia but a species of Oberonia, a con-
clusion which he reached for other reasons. ‘aking all the circumstances into
consideration, it is at least a very doubtful member of the genus to which it has
been ascribed and should be deleted from our census. Fresh material from
Rockingham Bay may yet place the matter on a scientific basis.
The new species does not appear to bear any very close relationship to other
members of the genus. Its very wide leaves and large size and small flowers
readily exclude the vast majority. A few species are comparable in size, but all
of these appear to differ considerably in habit or floral details.
41
Calochilus saprophyticus, Rogers, n. sp. Herba saprophytica, pallida,
robustiuscula, circa 20-25 cm. alta. Rhizoma in tubero magno incrassato illi
Gastrodiae simile. Caulis luteus, erectus, a basi vaginis duobus membranaceis
imbricatis, Bracteae 2, luteo-carneae, subulatae, circa 7 cm. longae. Folium
imperfectum, carneum, basi robustiusculum, canaliculatum, in speciem lanceo-
latum. Racemus 3-10-florus, bractea lutea subulata circa 4 cm. longa subtentus.
Flores pallidocrocei labello subflavo-purpureo, majusculi, pedicellati. Sepalum
dorsale erectum vel incurvum, late lanceolatum, circa 1-4 cm. longum, in medio
4 mm. latum, subacutum, cucullatum, 5-nervium; sepala lateralia patentia, falco-
lanceolata, circa 1:4 cm. longa, sepalo dorsali angustiora. Petala erecta, pallido-
crocea cum nervis pluribus badiis longitudinalibus, acuta, falco-lanceolata, circa
9 mm. longa, basibus circa 3-5 mm. lata. Labellum sessile, subrhombiforme, apice
brevissime ligulatum, circa 1°3 cm. longum (sine ligula), basi glabrum cum
lamellis duobus elevatis cyaneis metallicis parallelis anticis saepe furcatis, disco
marginibusque longe barbatum. Columna brevis, latiuscule alata, carnosa, basi
biglandulosa. Anthera incumbens, subobtusa, longiuscula. Stigma subtriangulare,
viscidissimum.
A pale saprophytic plant, rather robust, about 20-25 cm. high, with a large
thickened tuberous rhizome similar to that of Gastrodia, Stem yellow with two
membranous imbricate sheaths at the base. Bracts 2, yellowish-pink, subulate,
about 7 cm. long. Leaf incomplete in my specimens, rather fleshy and stout in its
lower part, channelled, apparently lanceolate. Raceme 3-10-flowered, subtended
by a yellow subulate bract about 4 cm. long. Flowers stalked, rather large, pale
saffron-coloured with exception of the reddish-brown striped petals and the
yellowish-purple labellum. Dorsal sepal erect or incurved, widely lanceolate,
about 1°4 cm. long, 4 mm. wide in the middle, subacute, cucullate, 5-nerved;
lateral sepals spreading, falco-lanceolate, about as long as but narrower than the
dorsal sepal. Petals erect, a pale saffron traversed by several dark brown longi-
tudinal stripes, falco-lanceolate, about 9 mm. long, about 3:5 mm. wide at the
base, Labellum spreading, sessile on an oblong base, somewhat rhomb-shaped,
very shortly ligulate at the apex, about 1°3 cm. long (without the ligule, latter
2-4 mm. long), glabrous at the base, with two (sometimes more) raised deep
blue metallic parallel plates often bifurcated in front and produced into long hairs,
the lamina and its margins covered and fringed with purplish hairs. Column
short, widely winged, a purple gland at the base of each wing, convex at the back,
fleshy. Anther rather long, incumbent, subobtuse, greenish-yellow. Stigma
triangular, just below the anther; no caudicle present.
Victoria. Cravensville, A. B. Braine and F. J. Supple, October 21, 1918,
and November 7, 1920, Mr. Braine states that it was growing in an almost shade-
less place.
The very characteristic habit of this species readily separates it from its
congeners. In structure, the flowers approach rather closely to those of
C. campestris, R, Br., but they differ not only in colour, but also in the shape of
the petals, which are much narrower and very much more acute; likewise in the
extremely short ligule as well as other details of the labellum.
Including the new species, the genus now comprises a small, well-defined
group of nme members, Eight of these are confined to the Commonwealth and
New Zealand, and one is indigenous to New Caledonia.
Thelymitra Sargentii, Rogers, n. sp. Gracilis, glabra, ad 45 cm. alta,
basi caulis vagina membranacea cylindrica laxa circa 5-6 cm. longa. Folium
lanceolatum, acuminatum, basi vaginans, ultra medium scapi attingens. Bracteae
caulinae 2 vel 3, subulatae vel acuminatae, basibus vaginantes. Racemus laxe
multiflorus, circa 9-14 em. longus. Flores 10-14 majusculi pro genere, hitei cum
punctis badiis, illis 7. fuscoluteae similes. Ovarium subconicum, circa 1:0 em.
42
‘ longum, graciliter pedicellatum; pedicellus circa 1-3 cm. longus. Segmenta
perianthii elliptica, subacuta, patentia vel subpatentia, circa 1°6 cm. longa,
circa 0°5 cm. lata. Columna elongata, erecta, apice incurva, circa 8 mm. longa,
lutea, punctata, latiuscule alata, supra antheram alte producta, apice trilobata;
lobus medius incurvus, dorso nudus, alte emarginatus, margine ceteroquin integro ;
lobi laterales dense papillosa-barbati, adscendentes, lobum intermedium excedentes.
Anthera mucronata, vix medium columnae superans. Stigma scutiforme vix ad
medium antherae attingens.
A glabrous slender plant, reaching a height of 45 cm., a loose cylindrical
membranous sheath at the base of the stem about 5-6 cm. long. Leaf lanceolate,
acuminate, sheathing at the base, reaching beyond the middle of the scape.
Cauline bracts 2 or 3, subulate or acuminate, vaginate at the base. Raceme loosely
multiflowered, about 9-14 cm. long. Flowers 10-14, rather large for the genus,
yellow with brown dots, resembling those of T. fiscolutea. Ovary subconical,
about 1-0 cm. long, on a slender pedicel about 1°3 cm. long. Perianth segments
elliptical, subacute, spreading or suberect, about 1°6 cm. long, 0-5 cm. wide.
Column elongated, erect, incurved at the apex, about & mm. long, yellow, spotted,
rather widely winged, produced high above the anther, 3-lobed at the apex ; middle
lobe incurved, not crested on the back, deeply emarginate, the border otherwise
entire; lateral lobes ascending, densely papillose-bearded, higher than the central
lobe. Anther with a reeurved mucrone, scarcely higher than the middle of the
column. Stigma shield-like, hardly reaching the level of the middle of the anther.
Western Australia. Bruce Rock, O. H. Sargent, October, 1929; Ben-
cubbin, R. E. Edmonsen, October, 1929; Dalwalinu, Colonel Goadby, October,
1929.
The new species is closely related to T. villosa, Lindl., and T. tigrina, R. Br.,
The former is easily distinguished by its very broad villous leaf, horizontal lateral
lobes and crested middle lobe of the hood. The latter is a much smaller and more
slender plant with a narrow lmear leaf, and flowers about half the diameter of
TL. Sargent. ‘Vhe middle lobe of the hood is 3-partite and crested. More remote
relatives are T. fusco-lutea, R. Br., and T. stellata, Lindl. Both these species
may be readily recognised by the deeply dissected margins of the column-hood
with its curious clavate dorsal appendage and the characteristic elongated recurved
terete apex of the anther. The former species has also a very broad glabrous leat.
The colour of the flowers, and the fact that the lateral lobes of the column are not
tufted with long cilia, removes our plant from other members of the section
Cuculluria where the prevailing colour is mauve or purple.
Thelymitra D’Altonii, Rogers, n. sp. Gracilis, circa 15-22 cm. alta.
Folium glabrum, canaliculatum, longitudine costata, subacuta, basi scapi vaginanis ;
lamina linearis, spiralis, inferne late dilatata. Caulis gracilis, glaber, erectus;
leviter infra medium bractea amplectens, subulata circa 2°5 cm. longa. Flos
solitarius in meis speciminibus, cyaneus; ovarium subviride, obconicum, sub-
gracile, circa 8 mm. longum. Sepala luteo-viridia, cum lineis cyaneis conspicuis
latiuscule virgata, ovato-elliptica vel ovato-lanceolata, subacuta, concava, circa
1-0-1°1 cm. longa, 4°5-5-0 mm. lata. Petala sepalis breviora et tenuiora, cyanca,
lineis atro-cyaneis late virgata. Columna caerulea, circa 6 mm, longa ; lobi laterales
late elliptiei vel orbiculares, lutei, plano-convexi, breve stipitati, post antheram
erecti, circa 1°0-1-5 longi; lobus intermedius multo brevior vel ohsolctus. Anthera
crocea, incumbens, conspicuissima, oblonga vel oblonpo-cuneata, apice truncata
vel abtusissima, bilocularis. Stigma prominentissimum sub anthera, orbiculare vel
transverse ovale, subpedicellatum, discoideum, concavum.
Victoria. Hall’s Gap, Grampians, C. W. D’Alton, October, 1922; Mr, A.
B. Braine and Miss May Braine, September 26, 1929.
43
Plant slender, 15-22 cm. high. Leaf glabrous, channelled, longitudinally
ribbed, subacute, sheathing at the base of the scape; lamina linear, spiral, widely
dilated below. Stem slender, quite glabrous, erect, a subulate clasping bract about
2°5 cm. long slightly below the middle. Flower solitary, expanding in sunlight,
subtended by a short subacute sheathing bract (about 0°75 cm. long) just below
the ovary. Ovary greenish obconical, rather slender, about 8 mm. long. Segments
of perianth not dotted or variegated, the labellar segment narrower than the rest.
Sepals lighter coloured than the petals, yellowish-green with about 7-9 conspicuous
rather wide dark-blue longitudinal stripes, ovate-elliptical or elliptical-lanceolate,
subacute, concave, about 1:0-1:1 cm, long, 4°5-5-0 mm. wide. Petals shorter and
of thinner texture than the sepals, deep blue traversed by darker longitudinal
stripes. Column rather stout, entirely blue, about 6 mm. high to apex of anther;
lateral lobes of hood bright yellow, broadly elliptical or orbicular in outline, plano-
convex, shortly stipitate, erect behind the anther, about 1:0-1°5 cm. long; middle
lobe much shorter or obsolete, without atry dorsal crest. Anther bright yellow,
incumbent, very conspicuous, oblong or oblong-cuneate, truncate or very obtuse
at the apex, bilocular. Stigma very prominent, situated just below the anther,
large, orbicular or transversely oval, almost pedicellate, concave, disc-like.
After very careful consideration, it has been thought necessary to describe
this dainty little plant separately. It is evidently a near relation of 7. spiralis,
Lindl, and T. variegata, Lindl., two ill-defined and possibly composite Western
Australian forms, and may ultimately be regarded as a variety of one of them.
In the present state of our knowledge, however, it is impossible to say which, as
one or other of the plants known under the above names may in the near future
require further subdivision.
In his Swan River Appendix to vol. xxii. of the Botanical Register, 1839,
p. 50, Lindley published two new species of Thelymuitra (Macdonaldia), which he
named T. variegata and T, spiralis, These short descriptions lack details of
diagnostic importance, but for convenience I quote them here :—
1. T. “variegata; floribus purpureis, sepalis petalisque linearibus acuminatis,
cuculli laciniis lateralibus lanceolatis subcarinatis intermedia obsoleta,
anthera carnosa obtusa elongata loculis brevibus semicircularibus mem-
branaceis.”
2. T. “spiralis; folio radicali spirali caulino solitario ovato, caule unifloro,
floribus purpureis, cuculli laciniis lateralibus carnosis dolabriformibus
intermedia obsoleta, anthera obtusa apice papillosa.”
It will be noted in these descriptions that the leaf is undescribed in
T. variegata, but stated to be spiral in the other; the flowers are purple in both;
the intermediate lobe of the hood is absent or rudimentary in both, and there is
no reference to the presence of a crest in either; the lateral lobes in T, vartegata
are lanceolate and subcarinate, in T. spiralis they are fleshy and hatchet-shaped.
The name variegata implies a character (presumably in the flowers) which receives
no reference in either description.
Bentham retained only the former species, describing the leaf as much dilated
at the base with a lamina lincar and often undulate; the flower dark-coloured and
variegated ; lateral lobes of column nearly 4 mm. long, obtusely oblong,‘ connected
behind the anther by a crest. He does not regard the spiral leaf as a constant or
specific character. Presumably Bentham had access to Lindley’s types, but it is
not known whether these were in a good state of preservation or to what extent
they were supplemented by other material. R, D. Fitzgerald, who illustrated on
the spot plants which he believed to belong here, shows the lateral appendages
as falco-elliptical or falco-oblong. It is by no means easy to reconcile these varying
44
descriptions. In my own material from Western Australia, the flowers are
sometimes ptnctate or variegated, sometimes not; the lateral appendages vary
considerably from oblong to elliptical, but are always more or less elongated, in
one specimen reaching the length of 5 mm, It is difficult to avoid the conclusion
that Bentham and other authors have included more than one species under the
same name, The matter can only be cleared up by a plentiful supply of material,
which it is hoped will-be forthcoming next season.
Mr. D’Alton, who has worked so energetically in the elucidation of the flora
of the Grampians, scent me a specimen of the new orchid eight years ago, but
owing to the hot weather and long journey it did not arrive in a condition suitable
for critical examination. I am indebted for my present supply of satisfactory
material to Mr. and Miss Braine, In his letter Mr. Braine states that they
collected 17 specimens, in all of which the flower was solitary. The contrasting
colours in the flower are most delightful, and in this respect no other member of
the genus known to me rivals it in beauty.
Prasophylilum Hartii, Rogers, Tr. Roy. Soc., S.A., li, (1927), p. 8 Var.
patviflorum, Rogers, nov. var. Differt a forma typica floribus minoribus
globosioribusque ; petalis lineari-falcatis, incurvatis, sepalo dorsali brevioribusque ;
parte apicali labelli acutius flexa.
Victoria. Singapore in Wilson’s Promontory, Miss E. Devonshire,
November 9, 1928; Port Albert, A. J. Tadgell, November 21, 1928.
This very distinct variety is readily recognised from the typical plant, by its
more slender form; by its much smaller and more globular flowers, its differently-
shaped petals which are also incurved and shorter than the dorsal scpal; likewise
by the more acutely flexed apical portion of the lip. Except that it possesses the
extremely characteristic labellum of P, Hartii, it might very reasonably be regarded
as a distinct species.
Microtis magnadenia, Rogers, n. sp. Subgracilis, elata, ad 45 cm. alta,
Folium basi vaginans; lamina elongata, ad basin inflorescentiac attingens. Tn-
florescentia circa 13 cm. longa, laxe multiflora, Flores pro genere magni, virides,
subdissiti, satis pedicellati, suberecti. Sepalum dorsale erectum, latum, concavim,
semiglobosiusculum, minute apiculatum, circa 3 mm. longum, 2°75 mm, latum.
Sepala lateralia late lanceolata, libera, circa 3 mm. longa, divergentia, horizontale
patentia sub labello. Petala erecta, late linearia, fastigata, subtruncata, sepalis
paulo breviora. Labellum sessile, in ambitu oblonga, apice retusum, marginibus
lateralibus crenulatis, plus minusve horizontale patens, circa 3 mm, longum,
circa 1°75 mm, latum; apicem versts callo magno conspicue elevato pallido sub-
viride subconico, basi duobus callis magnis confluentibus conspicue elevatis atro-
viridibus. Columna teres, longiuscula; anthera semiglobosa, minute apiculata,
attriculis comparate grandibus. Viscidium lucidum prominens.
A tall, somewhat slender plant, sometimes 45 cm, high. | The sheathing
portion of the leaf unusually low down on the stem, the lamina elongated and
reaching to the base of the inflorescence. The inflorescence about 13 cm. in length,
loosely multiflowered. [Flowers green, rather distant, large for the genus, with
moderately long slender pedicels, suberect. Dorsal sepal erect, rather wide,
nearly hemispherical, very concave, minutely apiculate, about 3 mm. long, 2-75 mm,
wide. Tateral sepals irec, rather widely lanceolate, slightly channelled on upper
surface, not recurved, about 3 mm. long, divergent, horizontally spreading beneath
the labellum. Petals oblong-linear, tapering, very blunt at apices, crect, a little
shorter than the sepals and not concealed by the latter except at the base.
Labellum sessile, when spread out oblong in outline, retuse at the apex, the
anterior margin otherwise regular and slightly upturned at the corners so as to
45
give a rounded appearance, lateral margins crenulate, spreading more or less hori-
zontally, about 3 mm. long, 1-75 mm. wide; the lamina provided with a very large
pale greenish conspicuously raised subconical callus near the apex and two very
large conspicuously raised confluent dark green calli at the base. Column rather
long for the genus, terete; anther hemispherical, minutely apiculate, auricles
relatively large. The viscidium conspicuous and glistening.
New South Wales. Lake Wonboyn, near Prince’s Highway. Collected
by Mrs. A. 5. Dwyer, November 28, 1929. Forwarded by. Mrs. Ethel M. V.
Eaves, Caulfield, Victoria.
This is a large Microtis, and in its general habit is most nearly related to
M., porrifolia, Spreng. It differs, however, from that species in the shape of the
lateral sepals and in the fact that these are neither recurved nor revolute but
horizontally spreading. ‘he calli on the labellum are also quite distinctive. They
are very large and very conspicuously elevated above the level of the laminar
surface. The anterior one is light-coloured, and the basal ones are dark green.
These large glands at once attract attention, and this character has been embodied
in the specific name of the plant.
Caladenia rigida, Rogers, n. sp. Terrestris, gracilis, hirsutissima, usque
ad 23 cm. alta. Caulis rigidus, hirsutissimus, basi vagina membranacea cylindrica,
prope medium bractea laxa subulata circa 1°5 cm. longa. Folium anguste lanceo-
latum, hirsutissimum, circa 6-9 cm. longum, basin scapi amplectens, Bractea
floralis adpressa acuta circa 1+3 cm. longa, pedicellum amplectens. Flos solitarius,
mediocris, glaber, albus, lineis porphyreis ornatus. Scpala similia sed dorsale
ceteris brevius, apicibus longe clavata glandulosa pubescentia, parte inferiore
dilatata, 5-nervia, in medio linea longitudinali porphyrea; sepalum dorsale erec-
tum vel incurvatum, circa 2:2 cm. longum; sepala lateralia rigide porrecta,
circa 2°7 cm, longa, Petala lanceolata, acuminata, retroflexa, 5-nervia, in medio
linea longitudinali porphyrea. Labellum breve unguiculatum, in ambitu ovato-
lanceolatum vel oblongo-lanceolatum, apice acutum, explanatum circa 1:2 cm.
longum, inferne ad columnam erectum deinde recurvum, marginibus lateralibus
in parte posteriore tenuiter pectinatis apicem versus breve denticulatis; lamina
longitudinaliter concava, callis linearibus obstipis 4-seratis dimidio apicali nuda.
Ovarium hirsutissimum, cylindrico-conicum, circa 9 mm. longum, pedicello gra-
cillimo, circa 1-0 cm. longo, Columna erecto-incurvata, circa 1°1 cm. longa, in
dimidio superiore latiuscule alata, basi bicallosa. Anthera bene mucronata.
Stigma discoideum, concavum, sub anthera.
A slender terrestrial plant, reaching a height of 23 cm. Stem rigid, very
hairy, with a membranous cylindrical sheath at the base, near the middle a loose
subulate bract about 1:5 cm, long, Leaf narrowly lanceolate, very hairy, about
6-9 cm. long, clasping the base of the scape. Floral bract adpressed, acute, about
0°6-1'3 cm, long, clasping the pedicel. Flower solitary, of medium size for the
genus, glabrous, white with reddish-brown longitudinal lines. Sepals similar, but
the dorsal one shorter than the others, dark reddish-brown clavate glandular-
pubescent at the apices, dilated below, 5-nerved, traversed in the middle by a
reddish-brown longitudinal line; dorsal sepal erect or incurved, about 2°2 cm.
long; lateral ones rigidly porrect, about 2:7 cm, long. Petals lanceolate, acuminate,
retroflexed, 5-nerved, with a reddish-brown longitudinal line down the middle.
Labellum shortly clawed, ovate-lanceolate or oblong-lanceolate in shape, acute at
the apex, about 1°2 cm. long when spread out, erect against the column below,
then recurved, lateral margins in the posterior part decply and finely pectinate,
shortly denticulate towards the apex; lamina longitudinally concave, the calli
linear bent forwards in four rows, bare in the apical half. Ovary very hairy,
cylindrical-conical, about 9 mm. long; pedicel very slender, about 1-0 em. long.
46
Column erecto-incurved, about 1-1 cm. long, rather widely winged in its upper
half, two yellow oval calli at the base. Anther markedly mucronate. Stigma disc-
like, concave, just below the anther.
South Australia. Golden Grove, Mrs. Rogers, September 12, 1908;
Macclesfield, Mrs. Rogers, September 15 1929; Hermitage, Kersbrook and other
parts of Mount Lofty Ranges.
The new species, although very different in colour is, nevertheless, very closely
related to C. reticulata, Fitzg., from which it differs structurally in the details of
the labellum.
Caladenia bicolor, Rogers, n. sp. Gracilis, usque ad 21°5 cm. alta, basi
vagina membranacea cylindrica. Folium hirsutum, anguste lanceolatum, circa
10 cm. longum, basin scapi amplectens. Caulis erectus, rigidiusculus, hirsutus ;
paulum supra medium bractea lanceolata laxa circa 1°8 cm. longa; bractea floralis
angusta, acuta, amplectens, ad ovarium non attingens, circa 1-5 cm. longa. Flos
solitarius, magniusculus, subflavus cum badiis virgis notationibusque. Sepalum
dorsale erecto-incurvatum, circa 3°8 cm. longum, circa 3 mm. latum, dimidio
inferiore dilatatum deinde in caudas terctes dense glanduloso-hirsutas contractum,
in medio linea badia longitudinali; sepala lateralia similia, porrecta, circa 4-0 cm.
longa. Petala lanceolata, retroflexa, circa 3°5 cm. longa, sepalis cetera similia,
Labellum anguste unguiculatum, ovatum, circa 1-4 cm. longum, circa 8-5 mm,
latum, apice obtusum, inferne ad columnam erectum, deinde recurvum, maginibus
badiis in parte posteriore integris versus apicem breve serratis; lamina longi-
tudinaliter concava, in dimidio posteriore lutea cum lineis conspicuis badiis
divergentibus, in dimidio apicali badia nuda; callis linearibus obstipis, 6-seriatis.
Columna erecta, incurva, circa 1°2 cm. longa, prope antheram late alata, basi
bicallosa. Anthcra obtusa, emucronata.
Western Australia. Swan River and Muresk, Mrs. W. E. Cooke, Sep-
tember 13, 1907.
Height up to 21-5 cm. Leaf hairy, narrow-lanceolate, sheathing at the base,
about 10 cm. long. Stem hairy, a free lanceolate bract a little above the middle;
the floral bract narrow, sheathing, acute, about 1°5 cm. long, not reaching the base
of the ovary. Flower solitary, rather large, yellowish with deep reddish-brown
stripes and markings. Dorsal sepal erect, incurved, about 3°8 cm. long, nearly
3 mm. in widest part, linear, traversed by a conspicuous reddish-brown line in its
lower half, then contracted into a terete cauda covered with dense short reddish-
brown glandular-tipped hairs. Tuateral sepals similar but rather longer (about
4m. long), spreading. Petals lanceolate, retroflexed, about 3-5 cm. long, in other
respects similar to the sepals. Labellum on a very slender claw, ovate, about
1:4 cm. long, 8-5 mm. wide, at first erect against the column, then recurved to an
obtuse tip; margins dark reddish-brown, entire except near the apex where they
are very shortly serrate; the lamina longitudinally concave, the proximal hall
yellow with conspicuous reddish-brown divergent stripes, the recurved apical
half dark reddish-brown and bare; calli linear, with fleshy heads, golf-stick type,
arranged rather indefinitely in six rows, extending to about the middle. Column
erect, about 1°2 cm. long, with hatchet-shaped wings on either side of the stigma,
and more narrowly below. Anther obtuse, without a mucrone.
This species rather closely approaches C. radialis, Rogers, but differs in its
relatively shorter petals, and in the presence of two oval calli at the base of the
column. J.ikewise the calli have more fleshy heads in the new species, are more
regularly arranged, and are not densely crowded towards the centre of the lamina
as is the case in C. radials,
47
OBSERVATIONS ON THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN SPECIES OF THE
SUBGENUS, “WALLABIA.”
PART II.
By Heptey Hernert Fintayson, South Australian Museum.
[Read November 14, 1929. ]
Prates I ro III.
Macropus (WALLABIA) RUFICOLLIS TYPICUS.
This, one of the oldest known of the kangaroos and wallabies, and one of the
most widely distributed, has been the subject of more general and anatomical study
than any other, except M. giganteus.
The name used above, although long established, was called in question by
Cabrera in 1919 (1), who pointed out that Desmarest had applied it to an
insular representative of the species, the mainland animal being specifically dis-
tinguished as M. rufogriseus. In referring to the species as represented in South
Australia, Wood Jones (2) followed Cabrera.
Since, however, the two names were applied simultaneously by Desmarest,
and since the King Island animal in question is doubtfully separable, even sub-
specifically, from that of the mainland, there is no risk of any confusion of
identities.
The objections to the use of the name ruficollis would thus appear to be slight,
and the case is one in which convenience arising out of long usage might well be
given greater consideration than the formal application of a rule.
Distribution and Habits—In the eastern coastal districts of the mainland
the species“ is represented throughout a tract of country nearly 1,000 miles in
north and south extent—its northern limit apparently lying in the Upper Dawson
Valley of Queensland at about 25° south latitude, and its southern limit in the
Otway Peninsula at about 39° south.
Throughout this tract its distribution clearly follows, with few digressions,
the foothills of the Great Divide and its associated ranges, and this may be
regarded as its typical habitat, but a westerly excursion from the Otway Ranges
has been responsible for the occupation, not only of the Grampians, but of much
of the timbered plain country of Western Victoria and South-Eastern South
Australia as well.
Although at the present day it is the only member of the subgenus Wallabia
which may be said to be well established in South Australia, its status here is
merely that of a western outlicr of a specics which is typically eastern in origin
and occurrence. It is thus much less characteristic of this State than the Toolache,
whose whole evolutionary history has apparently been worked out here and whose
range was exceedingly circumscribed.
The tract of country occupied in South Australia by M. ruficollis typicus is
coterminous with that of the subgenus as defined in Part I, of this paper and
corresponds closely also with that of M. greyi. At the present time it is not
found west of the River Murray, but formerly was well represented there,
occupying much of the county of Sturt, where, however, it was apparently con-
(1) In South Australia it is known to the settlers as the “Brusher,” commonly con-
tracted by the present generation to “Brush.” The aboriginal word in the lower South-
East is “Carlo.”
48
fined to the river flats and foothills, and its failure to occupy the Mount Lofty
Range proper has already been noticed.
Not only its distributional limits, but the density of its representation
correspond roughly with that formerly obtaining for greyi—there being a rapid
falling off in numbers on passing north from the well-watered and well-grassed
country of the lower South-East to the much less favourable conditions of the
mallee lands. Its presence in this latter type of country is remarkable, as it con-
stitutes an environment widely different from that of its typical habitat in the
east, and in no other part of its range does it appear to invade similar country,
Although the same boundaries equally define the limits of the range of both
M. greyi and M., ruficollis typicus in South Australia, the sharp division of the
country into distinct habitat zones of widely different character is responsible for
a very strong contrast in their local distribution and occurrence.
Whereas M. greyi was to be found exclusively on the most open grass country,
almost devoid of timber and even undergrowth, the natural station of ruficollis
was the heavily timbered country. This, as already pointed out, is itself of two
distinct types: Red and blue gum forests growing on comparatively rich soils and
free from undergrowth, and the stringy bark “ranges” which are interspersed
throughout the wide sandy heaths and which, while sharing with the latter the
typical heath flora of dwarf leptospermums, xanthorrheas, and casuarinas, possess
in addition the bracken fern. The “ranges” are thus provided with a plentiful
and frequently dense undergrowth under the timber.
Formerly, when settlement was little advanced and had caused little inter-
ference with the fauna and its distribution, it is stated to have occurred on both
types of country, but much more plentifully on the former, and since these smooth-
barked gum forests make a much closer approach to the general character of its
habitat in the east, this would scem very probable. In some localities the term
“scrub-brush” was applied to distinguish the wallaby of the ranges—these animals
being generally poorer in condition, and frequently infested with lice.
‘To-day, owing to the destruction of much of the timber, and to the closer
settlement of the country, it has disappeared altogether from the gum and grass
country, but, unlike the Toolache, to which the changed conditions spelt extinction,
it has fallen back on the rougher country, and, in spite of persecution, has most
successfully adapted itself to the more rigorous conditions of the scrub.
The contrast in habitat of the two species extends to, and is no doubt
correlated with, similar differences in many details of their habits, structure, and
temperament, and the effect of abrupt changes in environment in giving direction
to their more characterislic specializations is plainly apparent,
Unlike the Toolache, semi-gregarious and very local, the Brusher is a wide-
ranging, almost solitary, species, with no noticeable tendency to the formation of
colonies, being fairly uniformly distributed throughout all country suited to its
needs. Its occupancy, to-day, is, in many places, very sparse and perhaps inter-
mittent, but in almast any stringy bark range it is possible to find evidence of its
recent presence; whilst, in the case of the Toolache, much of the black rush and
tussock country, which forms its peculiar habitat, appears never to have been
utilized by it.
For the greater part of the year the normal social unit is a trio, a male and
female, accompanied by last season’s young, but the attachment of the male to the
trio is loose and intermittent, and a large proportion of the older males would
appear to be always solitary,
It is true that small parties are occasionally met with on especially attractive
feeding grounds, and on winter afternoons similar parties of twelve or more may
sometimes be surprised basking in a clearing on the sunny side of a range, but
49
these associations are quite temporary. When disturbed, the individual members
disperse on their own initiative and in many directions without giving evidence
of being dependent on a leader, as is the case when a “mob” of one of the gre-
garious species is put up.
In its feeding it is essentially a browser. The beautiful groves of Banksia
marginata, which occur as occasional oases in the heaths, and which are generally
free from undergrowth and lightly grassed, are attractive to it, and where crops
are grown in close proximity to its cover it makes itself as unpopular to the
settler as the kangaroo, but at the present day, at any rate, it seldom makes forays
out into the open grass country, and, practically, the whole of its feeding is done
in the ranges and on the edges of the heaths,
Here the bulk of its food is derived from the young shoots and leaves of the
typical heath species enumerated above, and examination of the stomach contents
of a considerable number of specimens plainly indicates that the dwarf
Xanthorrhea semiplana is, quantitatively, the most important of these,
In general disposition it is exceedingly shy and secretive, It is rarely seen
about during the daylight hours, unless driven from its camp, but lies up during
the day in the densest cover, frequently in a bracken-filled hollow.
It appears to have an instinctive dread of open situations, and when feeding
in such places is exceedingly alert and suspicious and far more difficult to approach
than the black-faced kangaroo whose feeding grounds are similar.
Its love of dense cover may be due (in summer at least) as much to a desire
for coolness and shade as to an instinctive seeking after security, since it displays
a marked intolerance to heat,
In captivity it is obviously distressed by a degree of exposure to the summer
sun, which has little effect on M. greyi or M. giganteus.
In summer, a period of cool and dull weather will sometimes tempt it out
to feed during the afternoon, and in winter, after protracted cold and wet condi-
tions, it will come abroad to avail itself of momentary sunshine, but ordinarily its
departure from a strictly nocturnal habit involves only the hour before sunset and
the hour after sunrise.
As regards reproduction, it is frequently stated by settlers and others that
the “breeding season” is in the early spting, and the statement is found also in
books on marsupials. The term “breeding season,” however, is one of rather
vague connotation as applied to marsupials, and popularly is applied indifferently
to the time of union of the sexes, and to the completion of the pouch-life when
the fully-developed young first begins to lead an independent life. The latter is
apparently the more usually accepted definition, locally.
It is probably true that the majority of “joeys” leave the pouch permanently
during the warm weather of September and October, but irregularities are so
frequent and so considerable that no hard and fast rule can be laid down, but as
with most macropods, young, at all stages, from the naked embryo to the fully-
furred but still dependent “joey,” are found in the pouch at all seasons of the year.
These irregularities arise partly from the absence of a definite pairing season,
the sexes uniting, apparently, without regard to the time of the year, and partly
also, no doubt, to individual differences in the length of the period of gestation,
such as are well authenticated in kangaroos, but even more to individual differences
in the rates at which young develop in the pouch.
When put up before dogs on the edge of a heath the speed of the Brusher
is considerable for the first 100 yards, or so, but it is soon blown, and if it can
be kept in the open its capture presents little difficulty to the average kangaroo dog,
Its immediate endeavour, however, when alarmed, is to make back into the
cover of a range, and here, amongst the timber and jn the tangle of undergrowth,
50
its dodging and doubling are so adroit as to baffle the smartest and most persistent
of dogs.
When so engaged its movements are comparatively noisy, but if it takes alarm
while under cover, it is capable of making its way through the undergrowth with
remarkable speed and in almost complete silence. Indeed, its “sneaking” abilities
are phenomenal, and a 50-Ib. buck, standing normally 4 feet high, will slip through
a dense bracken thicket, not only without once exposing himself, but with scarcely
a tremor of the surface greenery to mark his path. The habit of interrupting its
flight momentarily to look back at the source of alarm, so common in species living
in open country, is seldom to be observed in the Brusher,
If it is surprised in thick cover, however, and is uncertain of the direction
of the approaching danger, its apprehensions will sometimes induce it to make a
series of vertical leaps, which increase its range of vision by carrying it
momentarily above the level of the undergrowth. As it lands and “takes off”
from the same spot each time it betrays its position in an unmistakable way, and
the habit is thus equally fatal.
As regards its position in the fauna of the State, it would appear that
although greatly reduced in numbers from that formerly obtained, it is now, for
the present, at least, holding its own. Although nominally protected for part of
the year, it is persecuted constantly with dogs, both in season and out, partly for
the “sport” involved in its killing, partly for its handsome pelt.
It survives this persecution, partly by virtue of those qualitics which have
already been touched on in discussing its habits, but, chiefly, through the existence
of great tracts of rough, unsettled country, in which it can disperse and so avoid
that concentration which proved the undoing of the Toolache and Forrester.
It is exceedingly hardy and adaptive, and if there were sufficient local senti-
ment in its favour to insure the enforcement of existing regulations, it might con-
tinue to occupy its present status almost indefinitely. As matters stand, however,
its future status is by no means assured, and the gradual increase of rural popula-
tions and the subdividing and fencing of the poorer country will undoubtedly
destroy the present equilibrium and lead to its ultimate extinction.
In captivity it does remarkably well, and could be established in sanctuaries
without difficulty.
EXTERNAL CHARACTERS,
The only previous work on the South Australian representative of
M. ruficollis typicus is that of I. Wood Jones (2) who, however was unable to
deal with external characters de novo, owing to lack of material, the species heing
at that time unrepresented in the local Museum, This lack has now been rectified,
and an adequate scries, both of fresh material and of skins and skulls from all
parts of its range in the State, has been available for examination.
A close comparison of 15 typical South Australian examples, with material
from Victoria, New South Wales, and South Queensland, has brought to light
no differences so considerable or so constant as to indicate the existence here of
a sub-species or definite geographical race. Hence, as the animal in the Eastern
States has been the subject of frequent notice in the older literature, an extended
description of its external characters along conventional lines is unnecessary.
Existing descriptions of this, as of so many other marsupials, have been
influenced by the curious obsession which ascribes to the pelage an overwhelming
(2) Although probably several thousands are killed annually, very few age publicly
marketed in this State. A few are sold in Melbourne, but the greater number are used
locally by amateur rug-makers.
51
importance in description, and in reviewing and amplifying some points in these
descriptions, an opportunity is taken of introducing the results of field observations
and flesh measurements. These, while admittedly of little assistance in museum
identifications, would seem to have some place in describing a mammal, as distinct
from a skin.
In the present genus, where species are so closely related, they would appear
also to afford the chief avenue of approach to an understanding of their mutual
relationships and the nature and purpose of their specializations.
M. ruficollis typicus has been stated (3) to be the largest of the wallabies,
but I find that the average linear dimensions of aged males, both here and in
Victoria and New South Wales, are considerably exceeded by males of parryi
and agilis. In weight, however, it is the equal of these two species, but falls short
of that of the very massively built ualabatus typicus.
The disparity in the size of the sexes is marked (Table I.).
In general build it has been said to be slender and graceful, and this is true
insofar as it can be applied to most wallabies, but in considering the sub-genus,
as a whole, it is plain that ruficollis forms, in this regard, a connecting link between
two natural groups—agilis and ualabatus, on the one hand—both stoutly built,
thick-limbed forms, which are ordinarily given to rather deliberate movement in
a habitat which is frequently swampy ; and, on the other hand, irma, grevyi, parryt,
and dorsalis, in which the form is slim and attenuated, and the movements swift
and free.
Its limbs are relatively short and stout, and this with a short neck and well-
developed forequarters, give it a decidedly compact and sturdy appearance.
When seen moving in the open, its carriage appears low and its bearing care-
less. The head is held very low, almost on a level with the base of the tail, and
the back is thus strongly arched (pl. ii., fig. 1). The tail is convex to the ground
surface, though less so than in the kangaroos, and at each stride it makes a swing-
ing movement in vertical plane. Its hops are short and relatively high, and this,
with the rounded back and long curved tail, imparts a curious bobbing charac-
teristic to its progression, totally different from the free, long stride of the
Toolache.
The head (pl. i.) is large, with a deep, blunt muzzle abruptly truncated at the
rhinarium and making, in this respect, some approach to the exaggerated condition
present in M. greyi. Although its detailed chatacters and measurements are fairly
constant, the facial expression varies greatly with age and sex. In females, the
profile of the muzzle between the rhinarium and eye is markedly concave; in!
males, straight or even slightly convex,
The eyes are large, very dark brown and heavily fringed with lashes; but
the facial vibrissae generally are but moderately developed.
The ears are thicker and more fleshy than in the other species. They are very
bluntly rounded at the tip, and their margins form an even continuous curve,
unbroken by any notching on cither side. The innet naked portions of the conch
are yellowish-pink. The ears of the female are relatively longer than in the male,
and in both sexes they are shorter, in proportion to general bodily size, than in all
other species, except walabatus typicus,
In both sexes the arms are rather strongly developed in both segments, and
the hands are large and strongly clawed; although, as is usual, these features are
much accentuated in the male. The power of grasp is strongly developed, and in
the use of its hands it is more versatile than many other wallabies, In feeding,
for example, leaves and branchlets are not seized directly in the teeth, but are first
52
taken in the hand and either broken off or drawn towards the mouth. When on
the move the arms are loosely pendant from the shoulders (pl. ii, fig. 1)—the
hands are thus brought close to the ground, and are frequently brought into play
in changing direction and in avoiding obstacles.
In the relative development of the toes, and in the structure of the foot, there
is a general uniformity amongst the brush wallabies, but the size of the pes shows
considerable specific variation. In ruficollis typicus the pes is comparatively smal]
and delicate for so large and heavy a wallaby, and in adults of both sexes is
exceeded in length and stoutness by that of parryi and agilis, The foot length of
males is about equal to that of walabalus typicus, but the foot as a whole is very
much smaller and weaker, adaptations to semi-swampy conditiotis having developed
in that species the broadest foot in the genus. The sole is broadly naked through-
out its length and shows little of the narrowing as it approaches the interdigital
pad, characteristic of wma and greyi. The nails of both tourth and fiith toes are
large and strong, and at least im the district under consideration, are commonly
sharply pointed.
The tail is very long and slender, It is always longer (both absolutely and
relatively) in adult males than in females, and in both sexes is longer than the
head and body.
When compared with other species, its absolute length is exceeded only by
parryi, but the ratio tail: head and body is higher in irma than in either, the values
being: irma, 1°36; parryi, 1°34; and ruficollis, 1°27.
The basal thickening is moderate, and beyond it the tail retains its thickness
almost unchanged for the proximal two-thirds of its length, the distal one-third
tapering rapidly to the tip.
A conspicuous character of the tail is its marked lateral compression. At the
mid-point of its length, the vertical diameter commonly exceeds the transverse by
50 per cent. Small callosities are somctimes developed on the ventral surface,
usually corresponding to the site of chevron bones, but a more constant feature is a
sparsely-furred or even naked calloused patch on the upper surface of the base of
the tail. It varies in size and conspicuousness, and is apparently formed as a
result of the curious habit which many of the macropods have of resting in a
squatting position with the tail pulled forward between the legs, the dorsal surface
of the thickened part of the tail being then in contact with the ground and subject
to considerable pressure.
Although the examples examined, both South Australian and Eastern, agree
fairly well with existing descriptions, there are minor points of divergence which
may be noticed.
The face markings have been said to be inconspicuous. ‘Chey are certainly
much less prominent than in irma, parry, and greyi, but a check stripe is always
plainly to be seen, and is frequently well marked (pl. i.).
‘Lhe inner aspect of the hind limb, along the whole length of the tibia and
mctatarsus, is clothed with short, soft, white fur, which is abruptly and strongly
contrasted with the grcy or rufous grey of its outer surface, and in flat skins
especially this constitutes a prominent marking.
he dark brown or black toes are also abruptly contrasted with the while
foot, This is a constant feature in South Australian specimens, but is frequently
still more marked in animals from southern New South Wales, where the line of
demarkation is as abrupt-as in ima.
The tail in South Australian specimens is short-haired throughout. There is
a slight lengthening and darkening towards the tip, but the black dorsal crest,
53
containing hairs 30-40 mm. long, frequently seen in New South Wales animals,
is never developed here.
The seasonal change in the pelage‘® is marked, and produces greater colour
changes in the coat than in any other large wallaby. In the mid-summer coat the
dorsal aspect becomes a light silvery grey, and the rufous suffusion fades to a pale
yellowish ochre on the neck and forequarters and almost disappears from the
rump region. The hairs of the mid-dorsal region are about 30 mm. long, and are
telatively coarse and harsh to the touch.
With the advent of the cold weather, two distinct changes take place. There
is first a great development of rufous under-fur over the whole dorsal and lateral
surface, which increases the softness and density of the coat and restores the
bright red colouration of the forequarters and neck. At this time, also, rufous
areas are developed on the face and crown of head, which are grey in summer;
and the backs of the ears, which were then black in their distal half, now become
much paler and more heavily clothed. :
The shade of red which is exhibited by the under-fur varies in different
individuals, and in different parts of the same individuals, from Ridgway’s
“orange rufous” to “Sandford brown.” It is usually most brilliant round the
lower lumbar region and base of tail where, however, it is less conspicuous than
on the shoulders owing to the development of longer, darker hairs.
The long hairs of the dorsal region are of two kinds: the more numerous
and shorter possess a broad, pure white subterminal band, while the others are
much longer (50-55 mm.) and black throughout their length. The shorter-banded
hairs largely determine the prevailing tone of the summer pelage, but by mid-
winter the long black hairs are developed in such numbers that the whole dorsal
coat loses its silvery appearance and becomes a much more sombre, coarsely
grizzled grey,
The ventral surface undergoes little scasonal change, but is clothed through-
out the year with long, fine hairs, silvery while at the tip, dark grey or even black
at the base. The pouch area in the female, and the scrotal area in the male, are
tringed by hairs which are pure white throughout, In mid-winter the hairs of the
lower ventral surface attain 80 mm. in length.
The young, on leaving the pouch, have a short, smooth coat, totally unlike
that of the adults, both in colour and texture. The fur is a very fine, soft down
of a curious olive shade, the dorsal surface varying from Ridgway’s “olive-brown”
to “wood-brown.” The tail is much darker on its upper surface than in adults,
and both hip and check stripes are more marked.
In the adult the hair tracts of the dorsum are uniformly caudad, except for
an occipital reversal, which is centred between the ears, and which produces a well-
marked coronal crest.
The condition on the ventral surface is more complex. The main centres of
distribution appear to lie in or near the armpits from which the hairs are directed
inwards to the chest, forming in the mid-line a prominent opposed ridge, down-
wards, to form the main caudad ventral tract, and upwards, to form a strongly-
marked gular reversal which is opposed to the caudad directed mental area.
(3) The degree of seasonal change varies, and this is responsible for considerable individual
differences in ‘coat colour, but no mainland example which I have examined makes any close
approach to M. ruficollis bennetti, of Tasmania. The habitat of the variety bennetti is stated
by Thomas (3) to extend to Victoria, but this is almost certainly an error. Skins from the
most southerly points of the Victorian mainland, ¢.g., the Otway Peninsula and Wilson’s Pro-
montory, are not darker than average South Australian specimens.
54
On the lower part of the belly the condition varies. In the male the scrotum
is always the site of a radiation which may give rise to a reversal reaching as far
as the xiphisternum, but which is usually much less in extent. In the female there
is usually a very well-marked ridge of opposed hairs occupying the mid-line
between the cloaca and the lower margin of the pouch, which is probably sig-
nificant in directing the newly-born embryo upwards towards the mammary areas.
Minor reversals are present on the inner aspect of the limbs.
CRraNIAL CILARACTERS.
A series of 20 sexed skulls from measured individuals, representing a wide
range of developmental stages, has been examined.
The proportions of the adult skull as exemplified by the conventional measurc-
ments are, for the most part, in close agreement, and its main outlines and con-
tours fairly uniform, Especially characteristic, though not absolutely constant,
are its small transzygomatic breadth, its short globular brain case, and the large
projecting premaxillary spine.
In the size and shape of its individual bones, however, and in matty minor
details of structure, the skull of ruficollis is very variable, and such features as
provide fairly reliable criteria of identity in the other species are very misleading
in this. An element of uncertainty is thus introduced into identifications based
on cranial characters alone, and in particular aged examples of M. parryi, and the
present specics may easily be confounded.
The nasal bones are particularly variable and simulate in their differing
phases, shapes which are normal in every other species. Their posterior expan-
sion varies to such an extent that the ratio, length: posterior width, may be
as low as 2°12 and as high as 3:05. The naso-frontal suture may be almost strictly
transverse, as in billardieri, or may deeply invade the frontals as in agilis.
Similar differences are met with in the inter-temporal region, which in skulls
at similar stages of dentition exhibit very different degrees of constriction, the
shape of the frontal area being correspondingly modified. The supra-orbital
edges are stated by Thomas (3) not to develop post-orbital processes, but four
of the mule skulls, the measurements of which are given, do so to a degree which
[ cannot match in a series of 14 parryi skulls, where that condition is supposed
to be characteristic.
Four main palatal vacuities are nearly always present, arranged in two pairs
on either side of the mid-line. In each pair the anterior gap is about twice as
large as the posterior, which is situated nearer the mid-line and is separated from
its fellow by a narrow oblique septum. ‘The pattern thus produced is fairly con-
stant and is not closely approached by any other wallaby of the same size.
It is in the dentition, however, that the skull exhibits its greatest pecultarity.
The upper incisors, especially I.*, are excessively large ‘4? and powerful, actually
exceeding in this respect some of the kangaroos, and being relatively the largest
premaxillary teeth in the whole genus.
On the other hand, the permanent premolar is small, and if the teeth have
not been profoundly modified by wear, this combination of large incisors with a
small P4 serves at once to distinguish ruficollis from all its congeners.
(4) Their maximum dimensions, however, are only observed in very immature skulls,
as the rate of attrition is very high, and by the time P4 has irrupted, the vertical diameters
of all three have been much reduced.
55
Tasie I,
Dimensions of M. ruficollis typicus (in m.m.).
(S.A. specimens only.)
Srecimen Number.
Adult Males,
Adult Females.
113 127 230 176 208 117 132 174 175
Total length*2 1670 1636 1760 1540 1630 1430 1332 1405 1380
Tail*s rae 935 933 975 882 884 768 748 713 693
Tail base (girth) 204 210 230 191 202 191 154 172 178
Chest (girth) 439 429 a 429 382 302 300 360 328
Manus (length) —_— 60 — 60 60 30 42 40 46
Nail of third digit 24 25 —_ 23 22 20 22 18 20
Pes 242 222 255 222c.a. 242 220 210 208 217
Fourth toe dee 88 83 102 85 96 88 83 83 85
Nail of fourth toe .... 32 35 34 36 32 33 33 29 34
Ear*# 83x — — 85X45 76% 44 87x50 |83¢%— 82 43 76X44 75% 45
Humerus a —_— 126 140 140 121 96 76 838 88
Ulna radial length — 175 204 178 178 —_ 140 121 127
Femur .... —_— 205 210 —_ 203 191 178 = _
Tibia. Ab — 300 334 — 302 286 267 —_ =
Weight in Ibs. 46 37 53 a 36 31 24 24 23,5
“1, All measurements were made by the same observer (H. H. F.) on recently killed animals.
*2, Taken with a flexible tape, following the curves of the mid-dorsal line.
*8. Flexed at right angles to the trunk, and measured from the posterior margin of the cloaca.
“4, Vertical height from notch to tip X greatest transverse breadth,
Tasie II,
Skuil Dimensions of M. ruficollis typicus.
(In Millimceters.)
‘ Adult Males. Adult Females,
Specimen Number.
42 41 34 127 176 230 113 A 208 174 175° «132)—=«117
Greatest length ! 148 147 144 144 141 148 140 144.5 139 127 — 129 134
Basal length nan owe 133.5 135 131 128 128.5 137 130 130 128 113 —_ 114.5 121
Aygomatic breadth 67 68.5 69 66 69.5 71 72.5 69 67 62 64 63 66
Nasals, length wl 60.5 61 60 $4.5 57 61 59 50 55 53 49 45 51
Nasals, greatest breadth| 22.5 22 21 22 19 20 22 21 22 18 22 20 24
Nasals, overhang 16 12 16 11.5 15 16.5 15 12 11.5 12 _— 7 14
Depth of muzzle .... 35 30.5 29 28 29 29 32 28 27 23.5 — 23 25
Constriction eo 18 19 20 16 20 19 17 18 17 18 17.50 15
Palatal length Rad 87 91 85 85.5 84 90 85 85 82 75 — 79 82
Palatal breadth, Inside M2 21 23.5 25 24 21.5 24 22 22 21.5 21.5 21 20 21
Palatal foramina 6 7.35 8 7 6 8.5 6.5 6.5 8 ie — 8 7
Diastema wile : 36 37 34 34.5 33 40 33.5 35 35.5 31 _ 31 31
Basi cranial axis .... J 39 39.5 38 39 38 34*ca. 39 41 38 34 32.5 35.5 35
Basi facial axis .... 97 97 95 92 93 103.5¢.a.93 91 92.5 82 _ 82.5 88
Facial index 248 246 250 236 244 —_ 239 222 243 240 233 250
Molars1-3 21.5 21.5 24 23 24 21 22.5 ‘2 24 23.5 23 21 21.5
Pa a — 7 6.5 6 6.5 7 — 6 6.5 7 5.5 7
*Sphenoids fused.
Dimensions of unworn incisors in an immature skull.
Vertical height «x
Antero-posterior
Length of enamel
10 x 5
6.5 x 3.5
7 x 10
1
2
3
ae
ae
le
56
REFERENCES.
1. Anxcer Caprera: “Genera Mammalium, Monotremata, and Marsupialia.”
Madrid, 1919.
2. F. Woop Jones: “Mammals of South Australia, 1923-1925.”
O. Tuomas: “Catalogue of Marsupialia and Monotremata in the British
Museum, 1888.”
DESCRIPTION OF PLATES I. to Il.
Piate I.
Fig. 1. M. ruficollis typicus (aged male), showing characters of head.
Fig. 2. M. ruficollis typicus (young female), showing characters of head.
Piate IT.
Fig. 1. M. ruficollis typicus (male), showing details of carriage when on the move.
Fig. 2. M. ruficollis typicus (female).
Pirate III.
Figs. 1, 2, and 3. Respectively the lateral, superior and palatal views of the skull of
M. ruficollis typicus (aged male).
57
NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN POLYPLACOPHORA.
By Epwin Asupy, F.L.S., M.B.O.U., and Bernarp C. Cotton,
Assistant Conchologist, South Australian Museum.
[Read November 14, 1929]
No. I.
The Genera CaLLocuiton, Eupoxocnrron and Eupoxopiax discussed.
INTRODUCTION,
E. Ashby (Proc. Mal. Soc. Lond., xviii., pt. 2, p. 89, 1928), without having
seen an example, listed Callochiton castaneous Wood, as Eudoxechiton because its
coloured figures so closely resembled Eudoxoplax inornatus Ten. Woods. Iredale
and May, in proposing the genus Eudoxoplax for the reception of Chiton
tmornatus Ten. Woods (Proc. Mal. Soc. Lond., xii., pt. 2 and 3, p. 99, 1916),
found “it to differ appreciably from Callechiton and approach very closely toy
Eudoxochiton, . . . and may later be regarded as a subgenus of Eudoxo-
chiton.”
Discussion.
Careful examination of Callochiton platessa Gould, C. castaneus Wood,
Eudoxoplax inornata Ten. Woods, and Eudoxochiton nobilis Gray, warrants the |
following conclusions :—
(1) The radulae of the four species show no generic difference.
(2) The sculpture of the tegmentum is similar (but for some minor varia-
tion in the granulation), and under 65 magnification all show the same
minute striated pattern.
(3) The general shape of the valves, and also the sutural laminae, are similar.
(4) The latter are joined across the middle line by a forward extension of
the articulamentum.
(5) The insertion plates in all valves are “multi-slit and propped.”
(6) The girdle, in juveniles, is clothed with closcly packed “needle scales.”
All are consistent characters of the genus Callachiton.
DIFFERENCES.
(a) In Ludoxochiton nobilis Gray, the “needle-scales” are slightly more
irregularly placed, broader and stouter (characters which alone are of only
specific difference). The girdle, however, has also large, hollow, flat-sided,
grooved, dark coloured spicules, apparently deep seated; characters which in
combination with the above may be of generic significance.
(b) In Eudoxoplax inornata the slittings in all valves are more numerous,
and the propping is more strongly marked, giving the teeth a serrate appearance; a
difference, not in character, but merely in degree of sculpture.
(c) In Eudoxochiton nobilis besides their increased slitting, the teeth are
_ also laminate, the spongy character of the eaves extending between the laminae.
Cc
58
We consider Eudoxochiton a valid genus, because of its peculiar laminate
and spongy teeth, and the deep-seated, scattered spines in the girdle armature.
The three species, inornata, castaneus and platessa, are Callochitons, and the first
two may be regarded as representing the section Trachyradsia Dall of this genus.
Pilsbry (Man. Conch. xiv., p. 52, 1892) places C. castaneus Wood in the
subgenus Stereochiton (Carpenter M. 5S., Dall, Proc. U.S. Natl. Mus., p. 286,
1882), type C. castaneus, distinguished by the great extension of the girdle and
absence of girdle scales in the adult form. Pilsbry, p. 83 (Lc.), treats Trachy-
radsia (Carpenter M. S. Dall, Lc., p. 323, 1878) as a section of Ischnochiton; but
(Man. Conch. xv., p. 68, 1893) as a subgenus of Callochiton (dating from 1878)
with C. fulgetrum as type. Ile places Stereochiton Dall, 1882, as a synonym,
to which we now add Eudoxoplax.
Note.—Sykes (Proc. Mal. Soc. Lon., i., pt. 3, pp. 32-136, 1894), considered
C. fulgetrum R. V., as a syn. of C. castaneus Wood.
No. IL.
A species of CaLListocHiton new to South Australia.
Callistochiton mawlei Iredale and May was until recently known only from
South East Tasmania, but was later recorded from Portland, Victoria (Victorian
Naturalist, xliii., p. 357, 1927), and Ashby has since collected four examples at
-Cape Northumberland, South Australia.
No. III.
LEPIDOPLEURUS MATHEWSIANUS Bednall and its synonymy.
Lepidopleurus mathewsianus was described as of Bednall in a conjoint paper
by W. T. Bednall and E. H. V. Mathews (Proc. Mal. Soc. Lond., v., pt. 2, 1906).
‘As the single example found by Mathews (said to come from Gulf St. Vincent)
was lost, specimens from Marino in the same gulf, regarded as conspecific, were
supplied by Ashby, so that Marino may be regarded as the type locality. We find
that L. niger Torr (Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., xxxv., p. 105, 1911) from Hope-
toun, Western Australia, is conspecific, having compared the holotype of Torr’s
species (kindly lent by him) with the tototypes of L. mathewsianus. L. niger
was described as “much broader in proportion to its length” than L. mathewsianus.
This was due to the fact that the head valve was absent from the type specimen,
as is manifest in the illustration (Trans. Roy. Soé. S. Austr., xxxv., pl. xxv.,
fig. 5a.).
Terenochiton erratus Hull (Austr. Zool., xli., p. 159, 1923), from King
George Sound, Western Australia, should also be added to the synonymy. The
paratype (kindly lent by Basset Hull) is white, whereas most of the examples
from Marino, S.A.,, are dirty white or buff coloured. South Australian specimens
show a wide variation in the shape of the posterior slope of the tail valve. In
T. erratus this is steeper than most specimens of L. mathewsianus found in
South Australia, but some examples from Marino and Port Lincoln are like the
Western Australian specimen.
We compared Lepidopleurus glauwerti Ashby and L. badius Hedley and Hull
with L. mathewsianus, and with each other, and consider them both distinct
species.
59
ADDITIONS TO THE FLORA OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA.
No. 28.
By J. M. Brack.
[Read April 10, 1930. ]
PuaTe IV.
GRAMINEAE.
Triodia longiceps, nov. sp. Gramen rigidum glabrum pallidum, plus
quam metrale ; folia longa, subulata, apice pungentia ; ligula brevissima, ptbescens ;
catilis nodi pauci, puberuli; panicula angustissima, 25-50 cm. longa, ramis in-
ferioribus erectis, 5-10-spiculatis; spiculae angustae, primum lineares, 9-20 mm.
longae, 9-21-florae; glumae vacuac glabraec, 4-5 mm. longae, apice acutae vel
emarginatae, nervo mediano solo conspicuo; glumae floriferae circiter 4 mm.
longae, apice in 2 lobos, minutos obtusos et mucronem medianum breviorem
desinentes, ad basin annulo pilorum cinctae, ceterum fere glabrae; palea margines
glumae floriferae paululum excedens.
Finke Gorge, Hermannsberg, Central Australia; coll. J. B. Cleland. Local
name, “Bush Spinifex.” Differs from T. irritans in the longer, narrower spikelets
with more numerous flowers, the shorter l-nerved outer glumes, the glabrous
flowering glume with a ring of erect hairs round its base, and the much longer
panicle. When in flower the spikelet is barely 3 mm. broad and linear in shape;
the small membranous wings of the palea slightly excced the edges of the flower-
ing glume, so that they appear more conspicuous than in other Triodias. The
new species is perhaps confined to Central Australia. ( Plate iv., figs. 5-8.)
Bromus macrostachys Desf. This Mediterranean grass, conspicuous by its
twisted and divaricate awns, has been found growing on waste land near the
Waite Agricultural Research Institute, Glen Osmond.
PROTEACEAE,
Hakea ulicina R. Br., nov. var. latifolia. Folia plana, oblongo-cuneata,
3-18 cm. longa, 4-13 mm. lata, pungenti-mucronata, 3-nervia, interdum nervis
tenuioribus intermediis instructa, ita ut 5-7-nervia videantur.
Ninety-Mile Desert, near the Coorong; coll. E. Ashby. The broader leaves,
prominently 3-nerved, and sometimes with additional fainter intermediate longi-
tudinal nerves, bring this form near H. dactyloides Cav., a species inhabiting
eastern New South Wales and Gippsland, but the pedicels of our variety are
always, as in the type, quite glabrous. The fruit is sometimes 25 mm. long.
LEGUMINOSAE.
Acacia lineata A. Cunn. This slender, viscid shrub appears to be fairly
common in the Murray scrub near Karoonda. The linear phyllodia have a pro-
minent nerve on each face close to the upper margin, and the lower margin is also
thickened and nerve-like, leaving a narrow, flat channel between the two longi-
tudinal ridges. The real nerves (as will be seen from fig. 4 of the accompanying
plate) are three—two opposite the upper margin and one opposite the lower
margin—all concealed within the hardened cellular tissue of the phyllode. Our
specimens, from Karoonda, agree perfectly with some from Dubbo, New South
60
Wales, The form found near Port Lincoln and Tumby Bay has but one nerve,
which is removed from the upper margin so as to be almost central, and the lower
margin having no prominent nerve there is no longitudinal channel. This plant
was considered by Bentham to be merely a form of A. lineata, but Mucller raised
it to specific rank as A. imbricata, probably because the crowded, almost erect
phyllodes have an imbricate appearance. Maiden took the same view, which is
perhaps the correct one, but unfortunately our specimens from Eyre Peninsula
are few and imperfect. It is worthy of note, however, that the illustration in the
Botanical Magazine of the type from New South Wales shows some of the
phyllodes as having the nerve almost central. (Plate iv., figs. 1-4.)
Swainsona dictyocarpa, nov. sp. Planta parvula (speciminibus nostris
3-6 cm. altis), glabra absque paucissimis pilis sparsis appressis basifixis; foliola
3-7, ovato-oblonga, 5-12 mm. longa, 3-4 mm. lata, supremum inferioribus aliquanto
longius; stipulae parvae, lanceolatae; racemi 2-6-flori, foliis longiores; pedicelli
2 mm. longi, minute puberuli, duplo longiores quam bractea scariosa ciliolata ;
flores (siccati) caerulei; calyx 5-6 mm. longus, dentibus lanceolatis intus
puberulis, tubo glabro paulo longioribus ; bracteolae minutac, subulatae; vexillum
citciter 12 mm. longum latumque, levissime bicallosum ; carina obtusa, sine sacculis,
alas subaequans; ovarium glabrum; stylus fere tota longitudine barbatus, apicem.
versus rectus; legumen immaturum turgidum, subcylindratum, 12 mm. longum,
5 mm. crassum, glabrum, valde reticulatum, secus suturam haud impressum.
Bitter Well, Coondambo (north of Lake Gairdner), October 29, 1929; coll.
J. B. Cleland, Differs from S. viridis in the leaflets less cuneate in the lower part
and narrower towards the summit, the stipules narrow and scarious, instead of
broad and green, the bracts scarious and only half as long as the pedicels, instead
of green and as long as they; the wings as long as the keel or a little longer, instead
of shorter, the ovary glabrous and the pod ‘shorter, thicker, much more pro-
minently reticulate and not impressed along the suture. Differs from S. oltgo-
phylla in its almost glabrous character, the narrower stipules, the calyx with much
shorter teeth and without hairy longitudinal nerves, and in the glabrous ovary
and glabrous reticulate pod. From both it differs in the terminal leaflet longer
than the lateral ones. :
Swainsona canescens (Benth.) F. v. M. Specimens collected by Professor
Cleland on Coondambo Station have the calyx 9 mm. long, of which the acuminate
teeth occupy almost 6 mm. The standard appears to have always a greenish blotch
at base, as mentioned by Bentham in connection with his Western Australian
specimens, and the keel has always the two characteristic rounded calli at the tip. .
Tephrosia sphaerospora F. vy, M, has been found by Professor Cleland on
Andamooka Station, west of Lake Torrens, Ilitherto it has only been known
from the country north of Cooper’s Creek.
Trifolium Bocconet Savi. Inman Valley, Balhannah, Penola; November,
1929. A new record for our State, This clover is a native of southern Europe,
extending as far north as the Cornish coast.
Trigonella ornithopodioides (L.) DC. Kalangadoo and Penola; coll. E. S.
Alcock, November, 1929. This European clover-like plant occurs in pasture, and
Mr. Alcock describes it as useful feed. It has also been collected at Blackwood,
and was recorded in Victoria several years ago.
ZYGOPHYLLACEAE,
Zygophyllum fruticulosum DC. nov. var. brevilobum, Variat foliis linearibus,
14-2 cm. longis, ad apicem brevissime et obtuse bilobatis, ita ut folia emarginata
simulent ; sepalis lanceolatis, 5 mm. longis petala lutea obovata subaequantibus.
61.
Seventeen miles north of Tarcoola, October 30, 1929; coll. J. B. Cleland.
Has a very distinct appearance owing to the rather long linear leaves, which appear
notched at summit, owing to the two very short, obtuse lobes. The small flowers
are near those of var. eremaeum, but the sepals are very acute and the petals
obovate and obtuse. One capsule had attained 8 mm. in length, but was still
unripe.
ELATINACEAE.
Bergia perennis F. v. M. McDouall Peak Station, south of Stuart Range;
coll. J. B. Cleland, October 31, 1929. This little woody plant is new for South
Australia proper, but was recorded by Tate in the report of the Horn Expedition
(published 1896) as having been found by Kempe at Hermannsberg and by
Tietkens at Mount Sonder, both in the MacDonnell Ranges, Central Australia. It
was first collected by Mueller on Sturt’s Creek, North Australia, in 1856. The
short stems of our specimens appear to be prostrate. This species differs from
B. trimera in its perennial character, solitary axillary flowers, 5 sepals and petals,
10 stamens, shorter obtuse leaves, scarious stipules with long cilia and five styles
and capsule-valves.
MYRTACEAE,
Darwinia micropetala has been found recently by Mr. E. Ashby at Salt Creek,
Coorong.
COMPOSITAE.
Centaurea repens L. A troublesome weed in vineyards along the Murray.
The heads are spineless, but the plant is perennial, with creeping roots. It is a
native of Central Russia, Asia Minor, and Persia, and was recorded in Victoria
in 1907, but has only been found recently in our State. A synonym is C. Picris,
Pallas.
. DESCRIPTION OF PLATE IV.
Figs. 1-4. Acacia lineata. 1, flowering branch. 2, two phyllodia with twin heads.
3, bud. 4, transverse section of phyllodium.
Figs. 5-8. Triodia longiceps. 5, upper part of panicle. 6, two flowering glumes and
paleas in position, 7, flowering glume spread open. 8, palea.
62
ADELAIDE UNIVERSITY FIELD ANTHROPOLOGY:
CENTRAL AUSTRALIA.
No. 6—PHYSIOLOGY AND MENTAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE
AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINES.
By R. PuLterne and H. Wootvarp.
[April 10, 1930.]
INTRODUCTION,
The remarks which follow are to be regarded as a preliminary attempt to
assess quantitatively, if possible, the sensory acuity and the inborn ability of the
aborigine.
Notwithstanding his reputation of being able to see the tracks of man and
animals where the unpractised white man can see nothing, the investigations of
Rivers, McDougall, and others on the sensory acuity of primitive peoples render
it improbable that this and similar ability depend on any inherent superiority of
the organs of special sense.
The estimates of his intelligence which have currency at the moment are
impressions and have only that validity which the experience and care of the
observer commands. In a recent book on the Australian Bush the author
describes the aborigines as rude, backward, unintelligent, unable to learn civilized
arts; their beliefs are crude; their practices are repulsive; their corroborees ugly
and indecent.
A reviewer dealing with the above book by Miss Fullerton quotes the follow-
ing from Dr. Ramsay Smith:—‘“Children in school can be educated like white
children and to the same extent. . . . Some speak English chastely and
beautifully. Some train themselves in music. Some show great mechanical
ingenuity and read and understand books on mechanics and physics. .
To anyone who knows how the blackfellow, even in a single lifetime, reacts to
new influences, moral, intellectual, and mechanical, the facts seen to upset all
theories of cranial capacity, cerebral functioning, and mental operations.”
It is obvious that a just estimate of the ability of the aborigine can only be
obtained by some kind of measurement properly applied over a wide enough field.
We believe the time has arrived when something of the sort can be attempted.
It has been repeated again and again that the aborigines of Australia repre-
sent the most primitive variety of man still existing. This may be true, but it is
hard to find the basis for such a sweeping assertion. Writers who make this
statement have in mind, most probably, his failure to discover any kind of agricul-
ture, and his inability to make any provision for the future. This latter is all the
more surprising, for the nature of his environment demands such provision. The
number of aborigines in the country when it was first settled will never be certainly
known, but estimates rarely exceed 150,000—a biological index which indicates a
failure to gain any control over the environment. However, it is not our purpose
to deal with the cultural aspects of the aborigine, but it might not be amiss to
point out that it has long been a commonplace that complex civilizations owe much,
if not all, to the migration and diffusion of culture. Elliot Smith and Perry have
collected abundant evidence to show that the same is true in a large measure of
primitive cultures also, The backwardness of the aborigine may be due to his
“splendid isolation,” which has been complete for thousands of years.
63
If we glance for a moment at those aspects of the aborigine which are nearer
to our own purposes, we find the basis of the above assertion, that he is so very
primitive, equally dubious. Physical anthropology would regard a race as primi-
tive if it showed many characters that indicated affinity with fossil man, ¢.g.,
Neanderthal, or Pithecanthropus erectus, or even with the great apes. Huxley
long ago suggested that there was a special resemblance between the Australian
aborigine and the skull of Neanderthal man. Recent work, such as that of Berry,
and especially Morant, has shown that there is no evidence for this statement.
The aborigine is only one among a number of primitive races, and is by no means
the most primitive of these. Detailed dissections of his body, and in particular of
his face, feet, and hands, have failed to reveal any particular kinship with fossil
or anthropoid forms. The central nervous system might be expected to throw
particular light on this problem. Elsewhere one of the authors has published a
systematic account of the brain. Suffice it here to say that the brain is small, has
frequently a sulcus which appears rarely in the European brain, but the general
fissuration and the development of the areas underlying the higher mental pro-
cesses show some excess in the visual area and some deficiency in the temporal
region.
Though phylogenetically the size of the brain and the complexity of animal
behaviour go hand in hand, yet it remains a fact that many investigations made
on different varieties of men have failed to show any correlation between the size
of the head and intelligence. For instance, a square head is of the shape to give
a greater cranial content than a long head, yet measurement and experience have
failed to show any differences in ability.
Thus it appears that if we wish to find further support for the idea that the
aborigine is the most primitive of existing races, some further tests must be
applied.
MENTAL MEASUREMENT,
For the measurement of the acuity of the various sense organs, methods have
been evolved which are now almost traditional. No discussion of these is needed
at this place. It will suffice to mention our procedures in the appropriate section.
For the measurement of the intelligence we have the various systems of intelli-
gence tests. Despite the vast amount of work done with these tests and the
experience that has been gained, it cannot yet be said that they are thoroughly
established. Opinion varies from whole-hearted acceptance to the assertion that
no one knows what intelligence is, and therefore, no one can know what tests
measure it and what tests don’t,
An essay such as this cannot attempt any critical summary of the value and
the limitations of such a method of enquiry. Two considerations justify the use
of such intelligence tests for our present purposes. In the first place, there is no
other method which pretends to give a quantitative measure of ability as distinct
from the effects of training and education. In the second place, if we were to wait
until every objection had been met, stich time might elapse that this dwindling
people might have disappeared altogether. It is desirable, not only on scientific
grounds, but also from practical reasons, to attempt to measure the ability of
these people.
For ourselves, we are persuaded of the essential rightness of the present
theory of intelligence formulated by the English school of psychology—a school
objective and mathematical, inspired by Galton and whose present most brilliant
exponent is Spearman. Spearman’s theory implies that intelligence is revealed
in the solution of problems, the ability to perceive and educe the relations between
things apprehended. Tests which demand for their solution the perception and
education of relations do, therefore, measure intelligence. And most so-called
intelligence tests imply these things. By an analysis of the results of various
64
intelligence tests, Spearman observed that the correlations between the tests them-
selves exhibited a definite order of hierarchy. This led to his now famous tetrad
equation, whose principle may be briefly expressed as follows :—
r( A, P ) r( A, P )
r( B, P ) r( A, Q)
where A, B, P, Q represent any four capacities not obviously akin. The main
significance of this hierarchy is that we are led to infer that all the functions of
the human mind, the simplest and the most complicated, are probably processes
within a single system. As Burt has pointed out, the contrary assumption of a
radical dichotomy between the general mammalian foundation of the central
nervous system and the specifically human capacity of general intelligence, proves
a serious barrier to the advance of the biological standpoint of individual
psychology.
Spearman’s work has suggested that ability consists of two factors—a general
factor G, which is innate and unaffected by environment, and specific factors S,
which are more subject to training and education. General ability enters into
most mental performances in some degree. Tests which depend on mere sensory
discrimination do not involve much of G, Memory, in so far as it is mere repro-
duction, involves no G, but the more it makes use of association the more of G
enters into it.
It is true that this theory of Spearman’s has been severely criticised and his
mathematics have been rigorously questioned. Pearson and Moule have lodged
a definite verdict of not proven on mathematical grounds. We must confess,
however, that apart altogether from its mathematical basis, we find the theory
most persuasive on general grounds, and, if true, it would establish the funda-
mental validity of the method of intelligence tests.
For any tests to work satisfactorily it is, of course, essential that the person
to whom they are applied should understand them and should try to do his best.
The latter qualification seems abundantly present in the aborigines, for all who
have attempted any kind of investigation on these friendly and engaging people,
have found them most anxious and willing to co-operate and do their best.
The Binet-Simon test, as propounded by Burt in his book, forms the group
of tests most widely used and for which most experience has been obtained. It
would be desirable to use these. They demand, of course, some rudiments of
education, and have heen adapted to children from three to fifteen years of age.
It so happens that the mission school at Koonibha has assembled a group of
pure-blooded aboriginal children under the charge of a schoolmaster, who has
classified them and is teaching them according to the standards of our elementary
schools. Thus the children form a suitable group for such an investigation.
PHYSIOLOGICAL TESTS.
Our enquiries amongst the aborigines of the Koonibba station followed a
variety of ways. We performed a number of physiological tests; some estimate
was made of sensory acuity; from the natives themselves, and from the personnel
of the station we tried to obtain some idea of what they were capable of doing;
_and, finally, we attempted to obtain a measure of intelligence by our own
improvised methods. Our intelligence testing was merely preliminary. We hope
to follow it up systematically at some future date.
MEASUREMENTS OF BLoop Pressures AND PuLse RATES.
These estimations were carried out on full-blooded natives by the usual instru-
ments and methods. The pressures were measured while the subjects were seated
65
after they had been resting for about ten minutes, and after they had been put at
ease by talking and watching other measurements being carried out. The systolic
pressure was estimated by the tactile method, the diastolic by the auscultatory.
The difference between these represented the pulse pressure.
The results are included in the following table :-—
MALES,
Age. Sys. P. Dias. P, Pulse P. Pulse R.
25 108 55 53 65
25 120 && 32 74
13 118 78 40 82
30 166 110 56 96
30 138 92 46 88
20 132 102 30 68
25 102 60 42 60
25 128 90 38 68
25 128 90 38 68
30 120 80 40 76
FEMALES.
20 136 80 56 84
23 116 58 58 96
16 140 98 42 96
22 130 90 40 100
25 128 94 34 120
In addition to the results expressed in the above tables, figures were obtained
for full-blooded aborigines of ages outside those limits. These have been excluded
from the determination of the average because of the effect of age in altering the
value of these pressures. Investigations carried out on groups of subjects such
as soldiers of the British Army, University undergraduates in England and
America, and other enquiries, have shown in general that the systolic and diastolic
pressures are low in childhood, that they rise at puberty, and in adolescence from
the seventeenth to twenty-eighth year there is a further rise. Thereafter these
pressures remain constant until about the fortieth year, when another rise begins
with advancing years.
Throughout these various periods the product of the pulse rate and the pulse
pressure tends to remain constant, the more rapid pulse compensating for the low
pulse pressure of childhood. Moreover, the three measurements, systolic pres-
sure, diastolic pressure, and pulse pressure tend to preserve a ratio of 3:2: 1 to
one another.
From all the various observations that have been made, running into many
thousands and comprising different classes and ethnic groups, the commonest
values for systolic pressure, diastolic pressure and pulse pressure are: S = 120,
D = 80, P P = 40..
For the Australian aborigine the average for ten full-blooded males between
15 and 30 years of age is :—
Systolic pressure <=
Diastolic pressure = 84:5
Pulse pressure =
For females of the same order the corresponding figures are :-—
Systolic pressure =
Diastolic pressure = 82
Pulse pressure =
66
It will be seen that these figures present no sharp differences from those
obtained elsewhere, and the same ratios hold. Generally the female systolic
pressure is slightly below that of the male, but the measurement of 717 Filipinos
of average age of 25 years, by Conception and Bulatoa, gave 115 for the males
and 116 for the females.
Owing to practical difficulties, any measurement made on living pure-blooded
aborigines must necessarily be confined to small numbers. It is no use lamenting
this fact. One has simply to make the best of it. Ray made some measurements
on Central Australian pure-blooded aborigines, He took the mean of all his
subjects, irrespective of age, and for the males (44) arrived at the following
figures :—
Systolic pressure = 125-3
Diastolic pressure = 79:07
Pulse pressure = 46:3
For 13 females the figures were :—
Systolic pressure = 116
Diastolic pressure == 73°5
Pulse pressure = 42:5
Ray remarks that these figures almost exactly coincide with the figures for
healthy Europeans, but are 5-10 mm. below that for healthy white Australians.
Thus we may well conclude that the aborigine exhibits no deviation in circu-
latory pressures from the inhabitants of, say, England and America. This state- -
ment needs two qualifications—the numbers are too small, and the computations
have not been analysed in accordance with proper biometric practice. The second
qualification arises out of the first.
There are observations on the basal metabolism of full-blooded aborigines
now available which perhaps give a little further interest to these figures. The
figures obtained show the basal metabolic rate as 10% to 20% below the accepted
average values. Since the basal metabolic rate is ullimately an expression of the
rate of energy production of the active protoplasmic mass, it might be expected in
the absence of any evidence of endocrine deficiency that this lower rate might be
reflected in the values of circulatory pressures. It has already been remarked
that they arc of the same order as those obtained from healthy subjects of similar
age elsewhere. Read has suggested a formula which gives values for the basal
metabolic rate whose error is less than 10% for 60% of the cases tested. The
formula is as follows —
B.M.R, = 0°683 (D.R. + 0:9 P.P.) —71°5.
Applying this formula to the above figures, we get for the males examined a
value for the B.M.R. = 5-5, approximately. This means that basal metabolic
rate would be 5% and more above the mean basal metabolic rate. Thus we are
led to a result different from the direct estimations. There is plenty of evidence
that blood pressures and pulse rates are correlated with B.M.R., and, as a matter
of calculation, the factor 0-683 represents the correlation co-efficient of these with
the B.M.R. Apart from the inherent error of the method, the figures for pulse
rate and pulse pressure do not represent real basal values. Moreover, it assumes
a linear relation between pulse rate and pulse pressure which may not be true.
Nevertheless, it is of interest to review the circulatory pressures and rates in
relation to metabolic rates. And it is surprising that they should not both tend
in the same direction.
67
AUTONOMIC REACTIONS.
Adrenalin and the Sympathetic Nervous System—When adrenalin is in-
stilled into the conjunctival sac of a healthy individual, no effect on the pupil is
produced. In certain diseased states, however, a dilatation or mydriasis follows
the application of the drug. In this way adrenalin can be used to give a measure
of the excitability of the sympathetic nervous system, a quality we might expect
to exhibit some variation with race. Unfortunately we discovered too late that
we had brought very little adrenalin, and only three tests were carried out. These
were all negative, and as far as they go it is inferred that the aborigine reacts in
the same way as the white to this test.
Atropine and the Vagal Autonomic Fibres——By the same reasoning, atropine
can be used to bring out the activity of the vagus nerve. The vagus nerve inhibits
the heart rate, but this effect can be removed by the giving of atropine which
paralyses the nerve endings of the vagus in the heart. In doses of 1/,,, gr. its
effect is confined to the endings of the vagus, the sympathetic nerve fibres are
unaffected and there is no action in the cardiac muscle directly. When the vagal
effect is removed the rate of the heart beat may remain unchanged or be increased.
The effect which occurs depends on whether the vagus effect, or the vagal tone
as it is called, is high or low. In dogs, for instance, the heart beat is considerably
quickened, the vagal tone being high; in cats the effect is less; and in rabbits
and frogs there is no change whatever.
In man it has been found that the inhibitory effect of the vagus on the rate of
the heart is absent in the child, gradually appears with age, reaches its maximum
at about 25 to 30, and thereafter declines, In old age the increase in the number
of beats may be not more than four per minute.
We tested this reaction in a number of full-blooded aborigines by giving them,
by mouth, */,9) grt. of atropine dissolved in water. The pulse rate was then
counted at intervals of five minutes. The following results were obtained :-—
MALES.
P.R. after Atropine
Age. Normal P.R. TY io9 BT Tner. Time.
25 74 94 20 15 mins.
25 60 80 20 15,
25 68 92 24 20,
25 65 88 23 LF ;,
35 69 88 19 15,
40 72 78 6 15,
? 80 94 14 Ee».
? very old No change
FEMALES.
P.R. after Atropine
Age. Normal P.R. Tagg BT: Incr. Time.
16 96 98 2 15 mins.
17 88 96 8 5,
After 12 mins,
rate fell to
20 No change normal,
23 6 102 6 (Back to orig-
inal rate in 18
mins. )
22 No change
60 No change
68
From these results it will be apparent that there is a constant acceleration
in adult males round about 20, and the effect diminishes with age. This is in
accordance with results obtained on the general population of the community.
The few results obtained for the females seem to suggest that in them the
vagal tone is much less. It is to be noted that in most cases they are youger than
the males, and that in each case the normal pulse rate is higher. Either there was
some emotional reaction to the procedure, of which we saw no other manifesta-
tions, or sympathetic tone is higher. This holds when allowance is made for age.
Thus, in spite of the qualifications of the fewness of observations that must be
made, there appears some reason to suppose that there is a sexual difference in
the reaction to the atropine test.
OPHTHALMOSCOPE EXAMINATION.
Before proceeding to some sensory tests, we might record here the result of
examining the fundus of the eye with the ophthalmoscope. The normal eye of the
young aborigine may be described as clear, even brilliant, The eyelashes are long
and silky, and the conjunctiva is unpigmented except over the bulbus oculi, where
there are scattered masses of pigment. Pigment occurs along the horizontal
meridian of the eye, and this seems to increase with age. The eyes of the old
aborigines, owing to dust, flies, smoke, and the like, have invariably some chronic
conjunctivitis which gives the eye a dirty appearance. The iris has a very
uniform dark brown colour, and the pupil responds very readily to light changes.
The fundus of the eye was examined at night with the ophthalmoscope, the
pupils having been dilated by homatropine and cocaine. In eleven subjects the
following details were noticed. The general appearance, instead of showing
evidence of a marbled pigmentation, was of a dull silver or pewter colour with
a white or silvery reflex to light. The optic disc was flat or slightly cupped, its
margin being in part or wholly pigmented. The macula appeared in a silver fleld
as a cherry red spot, and the fovea appeared like a spark in the middle of the
macula. The silvery reflex of the retina spread out to the periphery, and the
familiar red reflex seen in Europeans was absent or only appeared as a faint
pink in one case. The vessels showed up in relief, and were entirely free from
pigment along their lines of distribution.
Acuiry oF HEARING.
A metronome was set to a onc-second beat. It was placed on a slightly
sloping bank, and all the people to be examined, along with the examincr, were
placed out of hearing of the metronome. They then advanced towards the source
of the sound, stopping when they heard it. ‘he distances at which each could
first hear it were then measured by means of a stccl tape. There was consider-
able variation in the results so obtained. he highest auditory acuity was found
in a white boy, the son of the schoolmaster.
Visuat ACUITY.
Cohn’s “E” test was used, the size being D = 1:0 of the metric test com-
monly used for testing the acuity of vision at 5 metres. This “E” was drawn on
white Bristol board with Chinese ink, and a duplicate was supplied to the
examinee. A card with the “E” on it was fixed on the north wall of the school-
house at a height of five feet, and could be turned in the four principal directions.
The illumination was constant at all tests, which were carried out between ten
and eleven each morning. The subject of the test was placed at a measured
distance from the test card, and was required to place the “E” on the card he
carried in the same position as the one he observed, The distance was recorded
69
“when three consecutive tests were correctly performed. This and the previous
method (hearing test) were practically the same as those used by Seligman in his
observations.
The test object, placed in a bright light, could be orientated at 24 feet by
ourselves. With two exceptions, it could be properly orientated at twice this
distance by the aborigines, and in one case at three times this distance. However,
the farm manager and his small daughter (white) equalled the best of the
aborigines. Though the average visual acuity is very high in the aborigines, it
does not exceed the limits that can be reached by whites.
Some Acuity TEsts.
No. of Testee. Metronome. Orientation of “E.”
35s 2 5 =; -. 180 yards — feet
37, w+ “EBS, 63,
45... i, oD —~—
46... a. 92 1350. 75 ,,
42... “4 -. DO *,, 66,
40... xa . 90, 54,
AS ce tet OP a Jey
48... ae + 20 4 — 4
47°... es we BO 4, 51,
te ka aye LO i.
38, a 5 «=©69D.—=, 63,
39, i . 9, 57 5,
41... oe . 9. ,, 45,
43... Ms .. 9 4, 48,
19, 5 - 9 , — ,,
The farm manager orientated the “E” at 73 feet.
TactiLte ACUITY.
We proposed to measure this in the ordinary way by applying compass points
to the flexor surface of the forearm and measuring the minimal distance at which
the two points could be discriminated. In practice we found the test very difficult
to carry out. It was difficult to be sure that the subjects understood what was
expected of them. Their replics were so discrepant that no rule could be estab-
lished. Our results are, therefore, very imperfect. We, however, gained the
very definite impression that their tactile acuity was of the same order:as for
whites generally.
Tue DiscrIMINATION oF CoLour,
Two tests were applied. In the first the subject was asked to name or trace
the figures in the Stilling test book for colour blindness. This book is so arranged
that one or two figures are constructed by an appropriate arrangement of coloured
dots. The figures are immersed in a background of coloured dots. The colours
are so chosen that if the subject has any form of colour-blindness certain figures
will be invisible to him. Conversely, certain figures are so presented that they can
only be seen by a colour-blind person. The book formed an excellent test. Prac-
tically the whole range of the spectrum is used as a test in discrimination. The
subject can either name or trace the figures and comprehends easily what is
required. Thus it could be used with quite illiterate persons.
Some forty full-blooded aborigines of both sexes and widely different ages
were tested by this book. In all cases the figures were identified or traced with
ease, and so it can be asserted quite definitely that the aborigine is sensitive to
70
the colours of the spectrum to the same extent as ourselves, and colour blindness
can only be an occasional event. No case was discovered in our 40 tests.
The second method we used was the discrimination of coloured wools. Skeins
of wool were chosen which comprised some twenty different shades of green, red,
blue, and yellow. The method we adopted was to select one of the primary colours
and then ask the subject to select from the group every skein which he thought
contained the same shade of colour. A few performed the test well and chose
nearly the maximal number of corresponding skeins. The white children on the
station could perform the test quite easily and perfectly, In testing the aborigines
difficulties arose. Some did not seem to understand clearly what was required.
Some understood but would quickly desist when a few corresponding shades had
been chosen. When questioned, these showed clearly that they appreciated differ-
ences in shade of colour. It was an interesting and irequent observation that
when a limiting hue was reached, such as a skein containing a faint trace of
yellow, and the question of adding it to a group or not arose, the aborigine became
greatly troubled. He would add it to the group and then take it away, and repeat
this several times, and finally resign the test in despair. They behaved as though
the idea of adding it or subtracting it alternately flickered in their minds, This
state of indecision was accompanied by obvious signs of distress.
The results obtained varied considerably, but the tests went far beyond the
perceptual range and indeed represented an examination in the power of abstract-
ing a general idea from a particular instance. The measure we intended to use,
namely, correct performance as unity, and degrees of imperfection in performance
as the fraction of which the numerator was the successes scored, and the
denominator the total of possible successes, was not of much value for the reasons
given above,
A more just measure is given by using categories such as bad, good, and
excellent, for these contain some allowance for the lack of comprehension, and
so forth.
Of the tests so performed eight are classed as bad. This group contains
four young men (average age, 25). As above remarked, white children of cight
years of age perform the test easily. Ten were classed as good, and four as
excellent. That is to say, only four adult aborigines out of eighteen performed
this test as well as white children.
INTELLIGENCE.
The tests so far recorded bring evidence that the physiological levels of the
aborigine are much better or much like our own, Moreover, we have discovered
so far no difference in the acuity of his various sense organs, with perhaps the
exception of vision. If it is true the aborigine is the ultra-primitive variely of
mankind, then we may assert at this point in our investigations the distinction does
not lie in his basal physiological and psychological processes. The last test
described above (the matching of colours) does seem to hint at a lower level of
performance in conceptual processes. In the beginning we have discussed what
was in our minds about trying to get some measure of one aspect of his mental
processes, namely, intelligence, and naturally we turned to the intelligence tests.
Though these tests have been applied to adults on a large scale, yet whatever
reliability they possess is greater when applied to children of the appropriate ages.
It may be recalled that in Burt’s book there has been recorded some remarks
of Binet about objections to his methods. Some teachers who had demurred at his
scheme were asked to demonstrate what methods they would use to assess intelli-
gence. They proceeded to ask all kinds of questions such as common sense would
71
suggest. Binet’s comment was that they used a method the same in principle as
his own except that he standardised the questions, defined the methods of putting
them, valued them according to age, and tried them on a sufficient number to
get rid of the error of random sampling.
Since our population was a random sample and contained many adults of
various ages, and some quite illiterate, we tried the so-called common-sense
method. Moreover, by interrogations referring to their immediate activities we
thought that many objections might be met, such as lack of interest, or experience.
Finally, it was possible to corroborate our conclusions by comparing them with
those arrived at by the various members of the administrative staff, The able-
bodied men about the place are for the most part engaged in some way in farm
work. The younger members have formed a very enthusiastic football team.
The young women who are unmarried carry out various activities arising in
the hostel. Cooking, dressmaking, house-keeping command their attention and
industry. The boys and girls attend the school. The farm, some 4,000 acres, is
under the management of a practical farmer who happens to be especially skilled,
since in open competition the cleverness of his methods has brought him several
silver cups. The present harvest (1928) has been a poor one. Nevertheless, the
highest yield of wheat per acre in the district has been obtained from the mission
farm. The farm manager is very well disposed towards the natives, and we
witnessed many incidents which showed his consideration for them, and, on the
other hand, their regard for him. We feel confident that his opinions on the
capability of the aborigine as a farm labourer are worthy of the highest con-
sideration, In general he said that the aborigines were poor labour in the sense
of bringing little skill and understanding to the task. Their industry has little
persistence, and a task set them must be watched until its completion, In the
handling of animals, in the care of material, and the adjustment of the means
to the end in the usual farm operations, they cannot be left to themselves, In all
his experience the farm manager said he knew of only one native, and he was a
half-caste, who might have been competent to farm on the share system with any
prospect of success,
The schoolmaster was of the opinion that the aboriginal child exhibited a
fair degree of competence in mastering and producing that sort of learning in
which the exercise of the memory was the most important factor. However,
subjects, and in particular arithmetic, where progress depended far more on the
ability to solve problems, they were very slow and, in fact, never proceeded far.
The matron of the hostel, a most kindly lady, had never seen a native girl
who was able to cut out a dress from a pattern, though many of them sewed
quite well, Their standards in dress and colour, judged by the standards they tried
to imitate, remained very rudimentary. In cooking, by constant practice, they
achieved a fair measure of success, as in baking bread, for instance, but any kind
of planning or provision beyond the immediate object seemed never to occur.
The constant preoccupation of the matron was what the girls would do after the
age of puberty. No amount of teaching ever made her feel sure that these girls
would remain chaste for long. It is difficult to decide whether “taking to the bush
with the men” is due to the strength of their feelings, or their feeble self-control,
or their lack of comprehension of any other standard. The Opinion seemed to
be that their conduct was due to the first and the last of these suppositions.
Evidence from Games —The football team drawn from the mission station is
keen, skilful, and often successful. In addition to their skill, the other feature
which has impressed impartial observers is the excellent team spirit, We were
assured, and our own observation of one match substantiated this testimony, that
the members of this team played so that thcir side might win, and each player
72
would sacrifice an opportunity of individual distinction in the interests of the
team. Attempts to tamper with their loyalty to the team have been made, we were
told, but they have been invariably unsuccessful.
Along with these admirable qualities, there exists the quaint but interesting
fact that the players don their football costumes at the beginning of the season
and never take them off until the season is over.
Group Tests—We shall now describe a few group tests. We think games
provide one kind of test of what we are trying to get at, the ability of aborigines,
because the aborigine is fond of games and plays them with keenness. ‘They did
form part of his own civilization, throwing the kookara, for instance. One simple
gatne we played with them was passing the peg. Two rows, one of aborigines
and one of white, were formed, and each row passed a peg from individual to
individual. The game was won by the row which passed it the faster. This
game is played very often at the hostel by natives in the station. The whites won
the game for this reason. Though we had never played it before, it was imme-
diately apparent that if we watched our immediate neighbour so that our eyes were
on the peg, and if each did this we conformed to the fundamental principle of all
games, viz.; “keep your eye on the ball.” The aborigines had not discovered this,
for they turned to pass the peg and thus kept losing sight of it.
Another group test used was to arrange three rows of candles, one behind
the other, each row containing seven candles. The object was to light as many
candles as possible with one match. Obviously the angle at which the match is
held will be a factor determining the rate at which the wood is consumed, And
again, if the back row is lighted first the succeeding rows can be lighted without
the hand being scorched. Repeated attempts failed to bring home to the native
contestants either of these points, and their performance in the best cases was
less than half that usually achieved at childrens’ parties. (The highest three scores
of aboriginal girls averaged six. ITifteen is a common score at a party.)
We were present at a reading of the Scriptures and an examination of the
young men and women in the instruction they had received from the pastor in
the previous week. They might be said to read, but none managed it with any
case or feeling, and their rendering was monotonous and, we infer, without much
understanding of the passages involved.
One other test we participated in along with the aborigines. The test might
be ranked as a scientific one, except that certain elements should have been morc
rigidly guarded. The test consisted of the exhibition of thirty common articles,
e.g., bottle, cork, corkscrew, and so on. Each article was held up so that all
could plainly see it for about five seconds, and then covered up. When the series
had been exhibited in this way, we were all required to write down the names of
as many articles as we could remember. The highest score was 26 obtained by
a half-caste, Several girls scored 20 to 23, The scientific expedition averaged
about 19, and one of their members, with 8, got the booby prize. ‘his test, we
consider, is largely one of reproduction, and ability only comes in when one
arranges a classification of the articles in one’s mind as one sees them held up.
Practice would facilitate the introduction of the associative element, Our sub-
sequent enquiries led us to infer that the aborigines relied entirely on memory,
and the test is of interest in that it confirms the opinion that the power of memory
amongst the aborigines would be of the same average order as amongst ourselves.
Our Own Interrogations——We now present a few illustrative cases of our
interrogations. A female aborigine, aged eighteen, had been educated at the
mission station and had reached the third grade of the school, These grades
correspond to the numbers in the State elementary schools. She had ceased to
73
attend the school two years ago. She can describe the process of baking bread
and can give a very good account of the procedure carried out when preparing
yeast. When asked how she would prepare a rabbit for eating, she replied that
she would fry it. She has some knowledge of geography and can say in general
where Japan is, and how you would proceed if you wished to go to Melbourne
or to the city of Adelaide. She does not know the simple arithmetical tables and
cannot tell how many shillings go to the pound. In the candle test she averaged
less than eight candles in three successive tests. In the memory test, reproducing
the names of the articles shown, she scored 19, which was very good. The girl
was among the more intelligent, Others who had been as long in the school
were unable to recite the alphabet or to give the succession of numbers from
twenty onwards. Any arithmetical problem, such as the value of twelve articles
when one cost threepence, none of them succeeded in solving. The meaning of
words such as religion, present, gift, moment, etc., they were unable to explain.
An aboriginal male aged 25 reached the fifth grade of the school and was
considered a very good pupil. At the selection of the coloured wools he per-
formed moderately, getting less than half the skeins of the corresponding colour.
On the farm he has tried to learn to shear, but has not become even tolerably
proficient. He has learnt no trade. His work is ploughing, but he does not know
how many acres a day he can plough (some were able to tell us this). He does
not know what becomes of the wheat when harvested. He does not know the
meaning of the word bushel, and can give no idea of how much wheat there is
in a bushel, He has no idea of the monetary value of wheat. He can recognise
on the map such countries as England, but can suggest no reason why wheat
should be sent to England. He can give no reason why some countries are hot
and some cold, etc. This is a fairly typical investigation.
Such an aborigine, though employed daily on the farm, will assure one that
he knows superphosphate, but has no idea what it is used for. We found that
practically none of them had what might be called “money sense.” Calculations
of the order of one article costs threepence, how much would twelve cost? were
too difficult for them. Arithmetic, even of the most elementary kind, does seem
to present them with very great difficulty. A group of six girls, all of them either
attending the school or just left the school, were examined on the multiplication
tables. Only one attempted the twelve times table, and she made several mistakes
in the attempt. To two young men who had attended the mission school and
who were enthusiastic and skilled members of the football team, the problem
was put: If one side scores seven goals and the other scores six goals six points,
what would be the result? They were extremely puzzled and tried hard to find
the answer. Each picked up a pencil and paper and tried to get an answer. It
was clear they had the relevant information and even some idea of how an answer
might be got, but they were unable to get the correct result. When the problem
was explained, they seemed to appreciate the way in which it could be solved.
We record the attempt of a young man, 22 years of age, who had reached
the fifth grade of the mission school, to find the number of pence in a pound.
He knew the number of shillings in a pound and the pence in a shilling, informa-
tion not often obtained in our interrogations. He worked in the following way—
2
«12
42
31
352
74
We noticed among the young married women this same inability to think in
nuinbers. A store is kept at the station, and it is customary for the families to
make purchases there. These aboriginal women would purchase constantly at
the store, but they never had any idea of the price of the articles they purchased.
They brought whatever money they had, asked for what they wanted, and tendered
all their: money. They took whatever change might be given them. The store
was looked after by the schoolmaster. He confirmed our own observations, and
remarked that none of them had any idea of money.
It is perhaps a slight testimony to the usefulness of our interrogations that
they brought out differences in the intelligence of individual aborigines. Investi-
gators have remarked that previous attempts to value intelligence in different
races have shown differences between races, but these differences have been less
great than the differences between the individuals of the same race. One adult
full-blooded aborigine whom we questioned seemed much more intelligent than the
others. So much was this the case that we took special care to verify that he
was a full-blood. And, indeed, it seemed that there was no reasonable doubt
that he was a full-blooded native. This man is a farm worker. Ile told us a good
deal about superphosphate and the role, it played in farm work. He told us most
of their wheat went to England, and England was a very small place with many
people; therefore there would be difficulty in growing sufficient wheat there.
Pointing to the map he showed us where England was, remarking on its distance
from the torrid zone, indicated the position of the equator, and told us that the
further you proceeded from the equator the colder it became. He can read,
compose a letter, is a good shearer, and has a great deal of knowledge about such
things as edible plants, and so forth. All his knowledge he is ready to impart.
In sorting the skeins of wool he obtained the best score. His visual acuity was
ordinary, being 26 fect by the test we used.
These examples are sufficient to show how we tried to get some measure of
the aboriginal intelligence. It is, of course, no standardised procedure and will
permit no very secure conclusions, Nevertheless, we venture to infer that if
our random sample is at all representative aboriginal ability is of a poor kind,
and certainly is far below the level necessary for any sort of successful adapta-
tion to a white environment.
For various reasons, age, illiteracy, and so forth, the number we examined
is very small. Of the fourteen examined on the plan already outlined, we con-
clude that one has fair ability, and that thirteen range from poor to very poor, The
tests we applied are quite fairly within the scope of an average 8-year-old white
child.
We would again say that we have been searching for some estimate of ability,
and by ability we mean the power of perceiving the relations between things
apprehended by the mind. We do not forget that successful adaptation to an old
or to a new environment depends on other things beside ability—ihe power to
resist the white man’s diseases, the white man’s vices, and the desire to succeed.
It has been said (Rivers) that native races lose interest when their own culture
is displaced, and they despair when faced hy a new environment. We have no
means of testing this hypothesis, but the demeanour of these natives does not
stiggest a hopeless pessimism. Their keenness on games, their readiness to sing,
their friendliness and humour, their anxiety to participate and do well in these
tests, rather suggest that their competitive instinct is by no means inactive.
We believe that this preliminary investigation is sufficient to warrant a more
extensive investigation of aboriginal performance and ability by methods which
have become frequent and familiar in our own schools.
75
SUMMARY.
. The results of certain physiological tests on the Australian aborigines are
presented.
. Tests of various kinds of sensory acuity are presented. There is some
evidence for believing that their visual acuity is of a high order.
Some attempt has been made to assess their intelligence. There is the usual
individual variation, but the average level is low.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
Burt, C.: “Mental and Scholastic Tests.” London County Council, 1921.
2. Ray, W.: “Adelaide University Field Anthropology: Central Australia,
No. 2. Physiological observations.” ‘Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., vol. Ii,
1927, p. 76.
. Rew, J. M.: “Correlation of Basal Metabolic Rate with Pulse Pressure
and Pulse Rate.” Jour. Amer. Med. Assoc,, vol. lxxviii., 1922, p. 1887.
. SPEARMAN: “The Abilities of Man.” Macmillan, Lond., 1927.
SELIGMANN: “Reports of Torres Strait Expedition,” vol. ii.
“Brit. Jour. of Psychology,” vol. i., 1905, p. 23.
. Wootrarp, H. H.: “The Abcriginal Brain.” Jour. of Anat., vol. Ixiit.,
pt. ii, 1929, p. 207.
76
ADELAIDE UNIVERSITY FIELD ANTHROPOLOGY:
CENTRAL AUSTRALIA.
No. 7--PHYSIOLOGICAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS.
By H. K. Fry, B.Se., M.B.B.S. (Adelaide), B.Sc., D.P.H., Dipl. Anth. (Oxon.),
[Read April 10, 1930.]
[This work was carried out at the Hermannsberg Mission Station in August, 1929,
All adult natives tested were full blood.]
A.—AN INVESTIGATION OF THE VISUAL SPATIAL PERCEPTION OF
THE AUSTRALIAN NATIVE.
Experiments which were carried out with this object fall into four groups :—
I. Estimation of the lengths of simple straight lines.
IL. Reaction to the Miuller-Lyer Illusion.
III. Estimation of horizontal and vertical lines.
IV. Interpretation of pictures showing an illusion based on strong lines
of perspective.
1. EstTIMATION oF THE LENGTHS OF SIMPLE LINES.
This was carried out by two independent sets of trials :-—
1. A slide was prepared on the principle of the slide used by Professor Rivers
in the Cambridge Anthropological Expedition to Torres Straits, Reports Vol. IL,
p. 117. The apparatus was made of strong white cardboard, A line, 75 mm. long
and not quite 1 mm. wide, was drawn on the face of the slide, finishing 1 em. from
its proximal edge. This slide over-rode a similar line 170 mm, long, drawn so
that it underlay exactly the first-mentioned line. Movement of the slide cut off
any desired length of this second line. The test subject was instructed to move
the slide until the two lines were of equal length. This estimated length was then
read off on a scale on the back of the slide. The natives were very uncertain
of the meaning of equal. A man would set the slide. A query then as to which
line was big one, would lead to an instant indication of one or the other line.
He would then make the alteration in the direction required by his answer. ‘The
performance might be gone through several times before final satisfaction was
obtained. Only three men, Numbers 49, 53, and 56, went about the test con-
fidently and straightforwardly. Comparative results starting from a closed or an
open position of the slide respectively were, therefore, impossible. The results
of the tests are given as the average estimates, with the mean variations.
2. The second series of tests consisted in obtaining judgments of the com-
parative lengths of lines prepared according to the standard Binet-Simon tests
for the fourth- and thirteenth-year groups, The results are given in tabular form.
If judged correctly, a dot marking is shown, if incorrectly, a mark 1+ or 2+ is
made to indicate that the first or second line was stated erroneously to be the
longer.
77
Estimation of Lengths of Simple Lines.
SLIDE TEST. BINET-SIMON LINES.
Serial Years No. of Average Sem. 4em. 5cm. 6cm. 7em. 7 em. 7 em.
Number. Sex. Age. School. Trials. Result. MY. 6em. 5em. 6cm. 7cm. 72cm. 7em. 7 cm.
1... M. 55 0 Failed .
2... M. 40 0 2 77-00 3-00 ‘ . WV. 14 #14 14+
3... M. 55 0 Failed 7
5... M. 55 0 6 75°50 6°20 . . . - it 1+ 1+
7... M. 40 0 Failed
8..M. 45 0 Failed
9..M. 45 0 Failed ‘ ‘ . » 24+ 24+ 2+
10... M. 45 0 4 69°75 5°25 . . ‘ . ‘ 1+ 1+
Wi.. M. 65 0 6 76°33 4-11 . ; ! 2 2+ - i+
16... M. 60 0 Failed
19...M. 21 0 6 70-110 O18, is Wee
20... M. 55 0 6 76-11 2:50 : : : AE 1+ 1+
21... M. 20 0 6 69-50 2°66 4 p 2 R d : i
22... M. 24 0 6 70°50 2°33 : : é 3 i+ -14 1+
23... M. 30 0 6 71-83 2°83 . m2: ‘
25... M. 25 0 4 72°75 2°25
35... M. 40 6 6 71°16 2-90 : : 1 , : ‘ ‘
36... M. 18 4 6 73°00 3:66 . 3 ; . I4+ i+ 14+
37... M. 18 4 5 74-60 0:56 . ; i . 24+ lit 14+
39... M. 50 ? 3 72°66 1-91 : : : : : . le
42... M. 25 4 4 71-00 0°25 , f : : 1+ 14+ 14
43... M. 26 6 5 71-25 2-05 t s f } A : .
45M, 24 0 2 70-00 es Oe oo
49 1. M. 25 6 3 71-00 0-66 ' h : ‘
50... M. 30 6 2 72-50 2-50
52... M. 45 6 4 73°75 1-25 ‘ . : . ,
53... M. 22 6 3 75°66 0-88 i : : oe Tee ‘
54... M. 25 0 3 73°00 2-00 Fs ; ; 4 f i+ :
56... M. 20 6 3 75°33 0-44 . , : » 2+ 24+ 2+
105... M. 15 4 4 71-25 2:75 : : ‘
102 .... M. 13 1 — . £ .
101... M. 11 3 = . . . . it 2+ 2+
60 0. FB. 22 0 Failed ; as 4 . 2+ 2+ 24
66 .... F. 25 0 Failed i ; ; 14+ 14+ 1+ 14+
69 1. F. 44 0 Failed
103... F. 18 5 ao
Average estimation, 72-73%, which represents an average error of 3-03%.
The results prove that most of the subjects are capable of making a fairly
accurate estimate of the length of a line. Further, they supply a control experi-
ment to the use of the slide for the Miller-Lyer illusion.
A low mean variation in the slide test was expected to give a relative test of
intelligence. It was, however, observed that some of the lowest mean variations
appeared to be due to repetitions of a former judgment not dependent on free
estimation, but rather on some locally recognised point on the apparatus.
2. Reaction to MULLER-LyeEr ILLuston.
A slide apparatus was prepared in white cardboard similar in construction
to that of Rivers, Ibid. Reports, Vol. IT. p. 117, but with the revisions figured
in Brit. Journ. Psych., Vol. I., p. 356. A control test was prepared by drawing
three sets of the illusion on cardboard strips. The diagram of each was identical
with the slide apparatus scheme, but the length of. line, included between the
78
obtuse angles of the oblique lines, was made 75 mm., 65 mm., and 60 mm., respec-
tively, the line between the acute angles of the oblique lines being constant at
735mm. Results are given in the following table. When the line between obtuse
angles is stated to be greater, equal to, or less than the constant line, the signs
+, =, or — are shown, respectively, in the table. An approximate reading for
the illusion based on this control experiment is placed in the last column.
The subjects who failed in the previous experiment with the simple line
apparatus were not tested with the slide apparatus for this illusion, but sometimes
gave readings with the prepared sets.
Care was taken in carrying out the tests with the slide and with the set
diagrams that the figure was viewed frontally and not at an angle. Further, the
three set diagrams were submitted in regular order—firstly the one with the longest
variable line, then the mean, and finally the figure with the shortest variable line.
The middle member of the’series was always presented in reversed relation to
the other two, in order to avoid a habit of pointing to the right or left half of
the figure.
Miiller-Lyer Llusion,
MULLER-LYER ILLUSION REACTION.
Average SLIDE TEST. SET DIAGRAMS.
Serial Years. Result No.of Average Approx,
Number. Sex. Age. School. Line Test. Trials. Result. M.Y. V.75. V.65. V. 60. Reading,
2... M. 40 0 77-00 2 60-00 5:00 te + + 55
5... M. 55 0 75-50 4 40-00 5-00
7... M. 40 0 _ —_ + + + 55
10... M. 45 0 69°75 4 54-75 4-87 + of + 55
ll... M. 65 0 76°33 4 56-25 2-75 + + + 55
19... M. 21 0 70-11 6 56-00 3-00 — —_ — 80
20... M. 55 0 76°11 6 60:66 ~ 2-83 + + + 55
21... M. 20 0 69-50 6 58-33 2-43 + + = 60
22... M. 24 0 70°50 6 54°66 3°33 + a + 55
23 .... M. 30 0 71-83 4 57-50 0-50 + + + 55
25... M. 25 0 72:75 6 60-66 2:56 + a — 40
35... M. 40 6. 71-16 6 58-00 1-33 - + + 55
36... M. 18 4 73-00 2 58-00 0-00 + + *F 55
37 1... M. 18 4 74-60 6 60-50 2:00 + +f + 55
39... Mz 50 ? 72-66 3 57-00 2-00 —_— — _ 80
42 ... M. 25 4 71-00 4 58-25 1-00 =f + + 55
43... M. 20 6 71-25 4 62-50 2-00
45... M. 24 0 70:00 1 55°00 : + _ — 70
49 1... M. 25 6 71-00 3 52:33 1-56 + + + 55
50... M. 30 6 72:50 2 61-00 1-00 + = = 62°5
52 .... M. 45 6 73°75 4 62°75 4:25 om + = 60.
53 .... M. 22 6 75°66 4 62°50 2:25 + + — 62:5
54... M. 25 0 73°00 3 54-00 2:66 + + = 60
56... M. 20 6 75-33 4 60-50 2-50 + + + 55
105... M. 15 4 71°25 4 60-50 5:00 + + + 55
102 .... M. 13 1 = _ + + — 60
101 .... M. 11 3 _ —_ + + + 55
60... F, 22 0 _ _ + —_— — 70
66... F. 25 0 — _ + + — 62:5
i03 .... F. 18 5 — _ + _ —_ 70
Average result sus m . 57°57 Average... 60-1
Average result, excluding No.5 ... 58°33
M.V. of average results... a. =—246
Average 11 males, no school ... 57-07 __.... ae Mey si a. 60-0
Average 11 males, with school .... 59°71... mee ant are a —87°0
79
The true average of the series is 58°33, as the result of No. 5 is anomalous,
and he completely broke down in an attempt at the next slide test of horizontal
and vertical lines. The older men were much more difficult to test than the
younger men, and they quickly tired and lost interest. No. 5 was 55 years of age.
The results of Nos. 19 and 39 with the diagrams are quite inexplicable.
They reacted well with the slide, and in each case the test with the diagram was
repeated after the slide test and gave exactly the same judgments.
Rivers (Brit. Journ. of Psych., Vol. L, p. 357) gives the following average
reactions to this illusion:-Todas, 59-8; Murray Islanders, 61:1; Uralis and
Sholagas, 55°3; English, 57-9,
The results of the present series of tests, therefore, approximate most closely
to those obtained by Rivers with the English,
The remarks concerning mean variation and intelligence, previously stated,
apply also in this case. No final judgment of equality could be obtained in the
tests with Nos. 36 and 45. Their statements of big one and little one were, how-
ever, narrowed down to a difference of less than a millimetre of movement of the
slide, and this reading was accepted as an estimate of equality.
3, REACTION TO THE ILLUSION oF ConTicuous IloRIZONTAL AND
VERTICAL LINES.
This is another test in visual spatial perception which Rivers used in his
investigation of the natives of Torres Straits. The method of Rivers (Reports,
Vol. IL, p. 108) was to draw a horizontal line 100 mm. in length and ask the native
to draw, firstly a vertical line of equal length from the centre of the former line,
secondly a similar vertical line from the extremity of the horizontal line, and
thirdly a vertical line through the centre of the horizontal line, forming a cross
with it. The average results obtained by Rivers for Murray Island men, for the
three sets of lines, were 65:7 mm., 77-0 mm., and 90-1 mm., respectively, Children,
white and black, exhibited a less degree of illusion; British students still less so,
viz., 89°0, 92°5, and 94-5. Todas (Brit. Journ. Psych., Vol. L., p. 339) gave
reactions of 75:7, 87°6, and 95-4, respectively.
The method employed to test the Australian native was a further development
of the slide method. A line 100 mm. long was drawn, and a long line drawn at
right angles to this, making a “T” with a long tail, A blank slide was arranged
to cover any desired length of this tail. The native made two series of estimations
with this apparatus. Firstly, the slide was held so that the “T” faced him with the
tail vertical to his front. Secondly, the “T” was placed with the tail parallel to
his front and the cross piece to his right. The native was instructed to move the
slide until the tail appeared equal to the cross piece. A series of readings was
taken in each position, the result being read off by means of a scale on the back
of the slide. The following is a table of the findings :—
T VERTICAL. T HORIZONTAL.
Serial No. No. of Mean No. of Mean
of Aborigine. Trials. Result. MY. Trials. Result. M.V.
2 st 4 79°75 8-12 4 81-00 5-50
5 26 Failed
10 . 6 7566 12-90 6 72-00 6°33
11 6 82-66 19-80 6 75°00 6-66
19 4 61-25 2-00 4 74°75 1°75
20 4 80-50 2:50 2 66°50 1-50
21 4 81-25 3:12 4 91-50 7°00
22 6 78-00 2-33 6 94+33 3:23
23 4 81-75 1-75 4 88-25 3:25
25 4 84°75 2-25 4 90-00 4-00
80
T VERTICAL. T HORIZONTAL.
Serial No. No. of Mean Na, of Mean
of Aborigine. Trials. Result. M.Y. Trials. Result. MOV.
35 1% 4 71°25 3-87 4 82-25 1:25
37 cule’ 6 78-66 2-56 6 74-66 1-76
39 vie Failed
36 7 Failed
45 2s, Failed
42 4 73-50 2:25 2 74-50 1-50
43 3 72-00 0-00 4 66°75 3°75
49 2 73°+50 1-50 2 79-00 1-00
52 3 81-33 2:23 3 84-33 7°43
53 2 77°50 2-50 2 99-00 1-00
54 2 53-50 1-50 2 56°00 2°00
56 3 74-33. 3°76 2 87-50 2-50
Average ..... 75°62 My whe Bo vee 79°85
There is little to be said of these results, except to note the large mean varia-
tions of the first three cases. This is probably a fatigue effect.
4. RECOGNITION OF PERSPECTIVE IN PIcrures,
Mr. L. Howie, Director of the School of Design, kindly supplied the sketches
for this test.
As a preliminary to the perspective pictures, four animal sketches were sub-
mitted for identification, ‘The first was a copy of a native rock drawing in the
possession of the school. It had the general shape and proportions of a kangaroo,
but the open mouth showed a long row of teeth, and the hind feet were bent back
and ended in four radiating toes. The sccond was a native drawing of an emu,
distorted and conventional in design but recognisable. The third was an excellent
sketch of a native companion, a bird of the crane family, but foreign to Central
Australia. The fourth a realistic sketch of a dingo. The object of this pre-
liminary test was to gauge the ability of the natives to identify a picture as a
representation of a known object. I remember many years ago a lecture by a
prominent artist in defence of the post-impressionist school of the time, in which
he argued that a South African Bushman could interpret a crude native drawing
as a representation of an animal, but failed to recognise that animal when por-
trayed in a photograph. The argument ran that the unbiassed visual perception
of the Bushman recognised a realism in the crude native drawing which Europcan
education had destroyed in its protegees, until rediscovered by the post-
impressionists,
Twenty-eight aborigines were tested with the above four pictures. The
dingo was recognised by all. Picture No. I, in twenty-four cases, drew a simple
comment of “Don’t know,” or “Can’t know him.” No. 23 stated, “Make him
along Adclaide, can’t know him.’ No. 2 guessed, ““Think emu.” Nos. 7 and 19
guessed “alligator.” This picture, in almost every case, caused an outburst of
merriment. Picture No. I. was called an emu seventeen times, a turkey once;
other cases, “Don’t know.” No. IIT. was called an emu twelve times, a turkey
once, an ostrich once, seven men stated they did not know, and seven men who
had travelled into lake country recognised it. In one of the perspective pictures
two kangaroos were drawn “normally” in black silhouette, These were recog-
nised as kangaroos without exception. Sixteen of these twenty-eight natives had
had no school instruction at all. These men undoubtedly were able to recognise
known animals in what an ordinary European would call a good drawing, When
an unknown animal was “well drawn,” or a known animal represented in the
conventional drawing of a kindred tribe, they guessed, or confessed ignorance of
the object represented.
81
The pictures used to test the recognition of perspective were two black and
white sketches. The first portrayed two kangaroos in a perspective scheme com-
prising a road, a fence, and a telegraph line with poles. The second showed two
blackfellows armed with boomerangs in the verandah of a house in sharp per-
spective. In both cases the two figures were identical in outline and size, but the
setting of the figures was such that the illusion was presented strongly that the
back figure was at least twice the size of the front figure.
These pictures were presented one at a tithe to the native who was being
examined. He was asked to say what he saw. A more or less complete enumera-
tion of the items of the picture followed. In only two cases was there any inter-
pretation of the picture as a whole. Nos. 7 and 16 called the blackfellow picture
“kurdaitja,” @.e., an avenging party. The examinee was then asked if the two
figures were one little one, one big one, or all the same size. In each case where
there was a judgment of a large and a small figure, a finger was pressed on the
figure judged and the remark made, “That big one,” “that little one,” or words
with that significance.
The results are summarised in the two following tables. The first concerns
the natives who have had no schooling, the second those who have had school
training. The method of recording results in the table is to place a “+” mark
under “Front” or “Back” to indicate that the front or back figure was judged
the larger, a “=” mark under “Both =” to record a statement of equality.
Pictures —Natives without Schooling.
Serial No. KANGAROOS. BLACKFELLOWS.,
of Aborigine. Sex. Age. Back -+ Both= Front + Back + Both = Front +
21 M. 20 a =
19 M. 21 at =
22 M. 24 + +
45 M. 24 + ss
54 M. 25 + —
25 M. 25 em +
23 M. 30 23 =
2 M. 40 + +
7 M. 40 + +
8 M. 45 ee +
9 M. 45 + +
1 M. 50 + +
3 M. 55 + +
5 M. 55 + a
20 M. 55 + +
16 M. 60 ++ +
It will be seen that a judgment indicating a perception of the illusion usually
is countered by an opposite decision in the second picture, signifying the even
chances of a pure guess. But No. 16 discovered the illusion, apparently, as he
stated: “Young man,” pointing to the front figure; “old man,” pointing to the
back figure. Nos. 19 and 54 may have seen the illusion in the kangaroo picture,
as their judgments are qualified by a statement of equality regarding the figures
of the second picture. Not more than three, therefore, of the thirty-two judgments
recorded indicate an interpretation of the perspective of the drawings.
82
Pictures —Natives with School Experience.
Serial No. KANGAROOS. BLACKFELLOWS.
of Aborigine. Sex. Age. Back + Both= Front + Back + Both = Front -+
101 M. ll : +
102 M. 13 — =
105 M. 15 + +
36 M. 18 ai +
37 M. 18 ick +
43 M. 20 = =
56 M. 20 = +
53 M. 22 ai: +
42 M. 25 + a
49 M. 25 + +
50 M. 30 + +
35 M. 40 a “+
52 M. 45 “+ +
39 M. 50 = ?
This table shows very different results, surprisingly so, as in the course of
the examination the good and indifferent results seemed hopelessly confused.
The school history was obtained later, and provided the key to the situation.
No. 102 had had only eighteen months schooling and was still unable to read.
No. 39 was said to have had some schooling, but the amount was unknown,
His judgment on the blackfellows was, “That big one, that one little one; yes, same
size, one little one, one big one.”
Apart from these two natives, the results of the twenty-four judgments of
the other twelve subjects show only five in which the perspective was not
visualized.
The interpretation of perspective is not a matter of intelligence but of
experience. My daughter, four years of age, ignorant of letters but well
acquainted with pictures, stated that the front figure in each of the pictures was
the baby one, when asked if the figures were the same size or not.
B._DISCRIMINATION OF NUMBERS BY THE AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINE.
The natives at the Mission were almost entirely of the Aranda nation. There
are native names for numbers in the Aranda language up to four, viz.: Ninta, one;
tara, two; taramininta, three (two and one); taramatara, four (two and two).
Beyond this there are native words meaning some, a fcw many, and very many,
but no higher numerals are given special words. The proposed investigation had
the object of discovering whether this vagueness of terminology covered the extent
of the natives’ ability to distinguish numbers.
A suggestion had been received that Professor Porteus was using cards with
spots in an investigation of this nature in North Western Australia, so the same
idea was employed in the hope of obtaining comparable results.
White cards were prepared,’nine centimetres square, with black spots about
four millimetres in diameter, ranging from one to forty in number.
The intended nature of the test was to find out how far the natives could
arrange the cards in serial order from one to forty, When the test was applied
it was found that the number of cards was too great. Cards one to twenty-one ¢
were used in consequence. These cards were spread out before the native being
examined. The proposal to arrange the cards in sequence from one to twenty-one
was explained in Pidgin English and such few native words that were at command,
combined with a demonstration. he cards were then mixed up and the native
told to make the attempt.
83
The results were as follows, in the order in which the natives came up for
examination. Sometimes the native was given a start by placing cards, 1, or 1 and
2, to help him begin. Any cards so placed are enclosed in brackets in the
records :—
No, 2. Parkbaga—Male, circ. 40 years, no school. Cards arranged thus :-—
(1,2), 8, 16, 3, 4, 10, 5, 14, 11, 13, 15, 7, 9, 12, 17, 6, finished.
No. 3. Mangaraka—Male, circ. 55 years, no school. Started with 2,
arranged others thus :—4, 10, 1, 2, 3, 6, 11, 13, 12, 8, 15, 7, 5, finished.
No. 1. Aldinga—Male, circ. 50 years, no school:—1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 11, 12, 8, 7,
17, 10, 13, 9, finished. This man counted eleven spots on the sixth
card but placed it next to 5, in spite of a challenge.
No. 5. Rodney.—Male, circ. 55 years, no school :—10, (1), 2, 12, 21, 6, 17, 13,
7,9, 11, 3, 8, 4, 16, 15, 5.
No. 105. Henoch—Male, 15 years, 44 years school. This boy counted the
spots carefully and arranged them correctly in 74 minutes.
No. 7. Engerilyeka—NMale, circ. 40 years, no school, but in gaol as a young
man:—5, (1), 2, 3, 4, 7, 9, 8, 6, 15, 17, 10, 21, 20, 18, 14, 13,
11, 12, 16, 19. ;
No. 9, Mulkunda—Male, circ. 45 years, no school -—(1), 2, 3, 4, 11 (with-
‘drawn on challenge), 5, 11, 12, 10, 7, 6, 13, 9, 20, 17, 14, 8, 16, 15,
19, 21, 18.
No. 8. Minuka.—Male, cire. 45 years, no school. No amount of explanation
could make this man understand what was required of him. He was
shown cards 5 and 10 and asked on which one big mob marks sit
down, on which one little mob sit down. Mr. Heinrich, of the Mission
staff, who speaks the language fluently, tried to help the man to
make a decision between the two cards, The only responses obtained
were, “Can’t know him,” “Don’t know.”
The state of affairs at this stage was most unsatisfactory. Mr. Heinrich
then appeared with two cards, representing realistically a flight of three and a flight
of five ducks, respectively. These were used as the basis of the explanation of
big mob and little mob. The spot cards were then presented in pairs for a similar
decision, Care was taken that the positions in which the cards were presented
were altered frequently, but irregularly, so that the judgment should not be merely
a habit of pointing to the left or right card. The examination of the natives on
these lines gave the following results. In recording the experiments, the numbers
of the pairs of cards are given in ordinary figures if judged correctly, but are
in italic figures if wrongly judged. If the cards were wrongly stated to be equal
the sign = is added; if the smaller figure was mistaken for the larger the sign
+ is added. Further, if the spots were counted, the letter “c” is added; if the
spots were not counted, no letter is added. If the spots were incorrectly counted,
the incorrect count follows the letter “c.”
No. 11. Maleki—Male, circ. 65 years, no school :—Birds; 3, 19; 5, 7 first +,
then corrected; 9, 14; 20, 21; 13, 17; 13, 14+; 12, 15; 10, 11;
23, 27; 22; 24+; 29, 28; 36, 30; 31, 324. :
No. 12. Murunda.—Male, cire. 45 years, no school :—Birds; spots failed,
No. 13. Tapanya—Male, circ. 35 years, no school:—Birds not understood.
No. 16. Wabiti—Male, circ. 60 years, no school:—Birds correct after much
explanation. Spots failed.
No. 10. Naitata—Male, circ. 45 years, no school:—Birds; 4, 6; 11, 12;
23, 20+; 13, 14; 17, 21: 29, 31=, then corrected; 15, 16;
32, 38-++, then corrected; 36, 39.
A younger and brighter set of men were now available for testing, so cards
1 to 10 were given to place in order of sequence.
84
No. 19. Tondalbinga—Male, circ. 21 years, no'school:—Birds; Cards: 1, 2,
, 5, 4, finished. 5, 6c; 7, 8c; 12, 13c; 11, 17; 17, 18¢;
25, 26=; 31, 33; 22, 38; 31, 38+.
No. 22. Ally—Male, circ. 24 years, no school -—Cards: 1, 2, 3, 4, (5) helped,
6, 7, 8, 9, 10. Counted 9 as 10, 14, 15+ ¢ 14, 13; 11, 12; 17, 20c;
25, 26.c 24, 26; 31, 334+ ¢ 32, 24; 22, 39c 22, 40.
As a considerable amount of counting was going on, it was then decided to
record ability to count to 20, followed by the eighth year Binet-Simon test of ability
to count backwards from 20 to 1 in about 30 seconds.
No. 21. Korongili—Male, circ. 20 years, no school:—Counts 20, not back.
Cards: 1-10 correctly, without help. 14, 15+. 15, 14; 11, 12¢.;
17, 20c.; 25, 26; 31, 33; 31, 32.
No. 25. Tundabinya—Male, circ. 25 years, no school:—Cannot count 20.
Birds; Cards failed; 7, 9=; 5, 6; 7, 8; 22, 39; 33, 39=; 31, 39;
31, 33; 25, 26=; 17, 20; 11, 12=; 13, 14+.
No. 23. Kurumalyi—Male, circ. 30 years, no school :—Birds; 4, 5¢; 7, 8+;
13, 144+; 7, 8; 13, 14=; 17, 20=; 31, 33=; 24, 25=; 26, 38.
No. 35. Ezekiel—Male, ciré. 40 years; school, 6 years:—Counted 20, and
back. Cards: 1-8, correct; 1-10, failed. 11, 12; 13, 14+; 17, 20;
22, 25; 32, 39; 31, 33.
No. 37. Kangei—Male, circ. 18 years; school, 4 years, off and on. Mr.
Heinrich states very dense. Counts 20 and back:—Cards: 1, 2,
3, 4, 5, 6, 7,8, 10,9. 11, 12c; 13, 14; 22, 25; 31, 32.
No. 39. Namitjera——Male, circ. 50 years; some school, unknown quantity -—
Cannot count; cannot place cards. 6, 9; 9, 10; 11, 12; 17, 18+;
32, 39: 13, 14; 22, 25; 31, 32=.
No. 20. Tjilba—Male, circ. 55 years, no school:—Counts 20, not back.
Cards: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 10, 6,9. 9, 10; 11, 12; 17, 18+; 32, 39;
13, 14+; 22, 25; 31, 32=.
No. 45. Dr. George—Male, circ. 24 years, no school :—Counts 20, not back.
Cards: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 6, 10,9, 8. 9, 10; 11, 12; 17, 18; 32, 39;
13, 14; 21, 23; 31, 33+.
No. 43. Gustav.—Male, circ. 20 years; school, 6 years, not continuous :—
Counts 20 and hack. Cards: 1-10, correct—counted, bothered
with 9 and 10. 11, 12=; 17, 20=;32, 39=.
No. 42. George—Male, cire. 25 years; school, 4 years, not continuous :—
Counts 20, and back; one slip, 11, 9, corrected spontaneously.
Cards: 1-10, correctly and quickly. 11, 12; 17, 18; 32, 39; 31, 33.
No. 52. Tom.—Male, circ, 45 years; school, 6 years:—Counts 20, not back.
Cards: 1, 2, 3, 4,6, 7, 5,9, 8,10. 9, 10; 13, 14+; 22, 26; 11, 12;
17, 18; 32, 39; 32, 33+.
No. 50. Erukinja—Male, circ. 30 years; school, 6 years -—Counts 20, not
back. Cards: 1, 2, 3—then watched my face, waiting for an
indication for next choice. 9, 10; 13, 14; 22, 26; 11, 12; 17, 18;
32, 39; 31, 33+.
No. 54. Uki—Male, circ. 25 years, no school:—Counts 20, not back. Cards:
1-10, correctly and quickly. 13, 14; 22, 27; 11, 12; 17, 18; 32, 39;
31, 33.
No. 53. Lucas.-Male, 22 years; school, 6 years:—Counts 20, and_back.
Cards: 1-10, correctly and quickly. 11, 14; 22, 25c; 11, 12;
17, 20; 32, 39; 31, 33.
85.
No. 56. Powell—Male, circ. 20 years; school, 6 years—broken, running
away :—Counts 20, and back; one mistake, reversing 14, 15, and
needed encouragement. Cards: 1-10, correctly and quickly.
13, 14; 22, 25; 11, 12; 17, 20; 32, 39; 31, 33, after indecision.
No, 49. Albert-—Male, circ. 25 years; school, 6 years, not continuous :—
Counts easily to 20, and back. Cards: 1-10, correctly and
quickly. 13, 14; 22, 25; 11, 12; 17, 20; 32, 39: 31, 33.
No. 101. Percy.—Male, circ. 11 years; school, 34 years :—Counts 20, not back.
Cards: 1-10, correctly.
No. 102. Nikia—Male, circ. 13 years; school, 14 years:—Counts 20, not
back. Cards: 1, 2, 5, 10, 9, 4, 8, 3, 7, 6.
No, 66. Yaberkulla.—Female, circ, 25 years, no school:—Counts 1-16, then
18, 19, 31. Unable to place cards. 5,6; 9, 10+; 7, 84+.
No. 69. Minekata.—Female, circ. 44 years, no school:—“Can’t know him.”
No. 103. Veronica——Female, 18 years; school, 5 years:—Counts 20, and back.
Cards: 1-10, correctly and quickly.
No. 104, ($) Eugenie—Female, 14 years; school, 44 years. Too shy to count.
Cards: 1-10, correctly.
As counting spots on the cards is essentially the same as counting coins,
some of the natives performed the sixth year Binet-Simon test of counting
thirteen pennies.
The valuation of the judging of pairs of cards cannot depend primarily on
a right answer. A blind guess has an equal chance of success or failure. A
failure is, however, of importance, as it indicates an error in judgment or a blind
guess, which is equally damning. The importance of this is shown in:—No. 37:
no mistakes in pairing up to 31, 32, yet misplaces 9 and 10 in series; No. 53: no
mistakes in pairing, yet had to count 22, 25 to be sure of his ground ; and, finally,
No. 56: no mistakes in pairing, yet showed indecision over 31, 33, indicating that
his successful judgment was more or less of a guess.
The experiments do, however, disclose some degree of order of merit in
estimating numbers. The index is supplied by the ratio of the difference between
the two numbers to the lower number itself, i.¢., a failure in 5, 6 indicates a
failure at the ratio 1:5; a failure in 17, 20, a ratio 3:17 or 1:5°7; a failure at
32, 39, a ratio 7:32 or 1:4°6. Of these three examples, 1!5'7 is a better result
or rather a less error than 1:4-6, and so on. A summary has been drawn up on
this basis of estimating merit.
The result expressing the highest error is taken in each test, and the index
figure in the table is the value of “x” in the ratio 1:x for this error.
Discrimination of Numbers.
Index of Cards
Serial No. Years of Paired Card Arranged Counting, Counting
of Aborigine. Sex. Age. School. Judgment. in Sequence. lto20. Back, 20 to 1.
42 M. 25 4 16+ 1—10 Yes Yes
49 M. 25 6 16+ 1—10 Yes Yes
53 M. 22 6 16+- 1—10 Yes Yes
56 M. 20 6 16+ 1—10 Yes Yes
54 M. 25 Nil 16+- 1—10 Yes No
37 M. 18 4 16+ 1—8 Yes Yes
50 M. 30 6 15:5 1—3 Yes No
45 M. 24 Nil 15-5 1—5 Yes No
21 M. 20 Nil 14 1—10 Yes No
86
Index of Cards
Serial No. Years of | Paired Card Arranged Counting, Counting
of Aborigine. Sex. Age School. Judgment. in Sequence. lto20. Back, 20 tol.
22 M. 24 Nil 14 1—10 ae, —
35 M. 40 6 13 i—8 Yes Yes
52 M. 45 6 13 1—4 Yes No
20 M. 55 Nil 13 1—5 Yes No
39 M. 50 ? 13 Nil No No
ll M. 65 Nil 11 —_ — —
66 F. 26 Nil 7 Nil 16 No
10 M. 45 Nil 6-7 — wn =
23 M. 30 Nil 5-7 — —_— me
43 M. 20 6 4-6 1—10 Yes Yes
19 M. 21 Nil 4-4 1—3 — a
25 M. 25 Nil 3°5 Nil No No
16 M. 60 Nil 1-5+ oy — _
12 M. 45 Nil 1-5+ — 4 ra
8 M. 45 Nil 0 Nil _— a
13 M. 35 Nil 0 Nil = —
69 F. 44 Nil 0 Nil No No
1 M. 50 Nil _ 1—5
9 M. 45 Nil — 1—5
7 M. 40 Nil as ae
3 M 55 Nil _— 1—3
5 M 55 Nil —_ 1—2
2 M 40 Nil — Nil
The last six results are not comparable with the previous twenty-six, and are
arranged merely in order of merit amongst themselves. The results of the school
children are omitted from the list. The experiment raises the very interesting
question as to how much educated people rely on counting in their estimate of
numbers. The educated mind is steeped in counting from an early age. A mass
of visible units is unconsciously broken up into groups to facilitate the judgment,
and rapid counting normally accompanies a movement of the eyes over a series.
It is significant that the spots of playing cards are limited by a four spot grouping
and then transfer to a picture series; also that large numerals are written with a
grouping of figures into threes. I am convinced that five units constitute the mit
of immediate recognition, and that estimates of numbers beyond this involve rapid
counting, grouping, or guessing.
The natives in our serics showed that they were not familiar with numbers.
At least thirteen could count to twenty, and of these seven could count back-
wards from twenty to one. Yet their counting was laborious, and those that
counted backwards seerned surprised with their prowess. I think that rapid
counting and grouping can be eliminated as a method of estimating numbers on
their part. In no case were all the judgments dependent on counting. Some
judgments were rapid, while all counted comparisons were slow and the counting
audible and visible.
My opinion is that all judgments showing an index above six in the list are
shrewd or lucky guesses, and that the results of the experiment in comparing
pairs of cards show that the natives possess a decided ability to estimate com-
parative numbers by guessing.
The method of arranging a sequence of numbers would appear from the
results in general to pick out in relief those individuals who have a working
acquaintance with figures. The idea of a sequence, in the absence of a knowledge
of figures, is too abstract to be grasped by the unenlightened.
87
C.—PHYSIOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS.
1. Visuau Acurry.
Two methods were tsed to test visual actlity.
1. Snellen’s Type—A Snellen “illiterate type” E, 18 millimetres square, was
the standard adopted. ‘his letter subtends an angle of five minutes at a distance
of twelve metres or 39°37 feet. The letter was centrally drawn on a small circle
of white cardboard, which was mounted on a large sheet of white cardboard in
such a way that it could be freely rotated, without wavering or eccentric move-
ment from the back of the cardboard sheet. The basis of the test was to find
the maximum distance at which the orientation of the E could be distinguished.
The individual examined faced the test board and held a square cardboard with
a similar but large E in front of him and turned this to correspond in position
with the E on the test board. The position adopted was recognised by the
examiner by means of a large arrow drawn on the reverse side of the cardboard
square. A few tests were carried out at close range to school the native in the
technique.
The first tests, which were made with adult natives, were proceeded with by
sending the native to a distance and then having him approach until he could
recognise the position of the E correctly. This distance was then noted, and the
test repeated several times with the E rotated to different positions. This method
needed the presence of an assistant to note the distances. No assistance was
available on other days, so the course was marked by signs at ten foot intervals.
The test subject was started at a medium distance, and given several trials. He
was then advanced or retired ten feet, and the trials repeated until a distance was
attained at which the subject made two errors of 180 degrees or one error of
90 degrees in at least five tests.
2. A Modification of Guillery’s Spots—Two sheets were prepared each
showing the outline of a man in profile—one black on a white ground, the other
white on a black ground. Three rectangular windows were made in each figure
in the position of the head, chest, and thigh, respectively. Slides were arranged
behind these windows, so that in any of the three a spot 3-6 mm. square could
be cxhibited—a black spot in the white background, and vice-versa, The test
subject was sent to a distance and approached until the spot was visible. He had
to check his statement by pointing to his own head, neck or chest, and correctly
indicating the position of the spot shown on the card. The distance at which the
spot was picked up correctly was noted, an incorrect indication eliminated.
Several trials were made with each subject with each card. The visual acuity
tests were carried out towards the end of the stay at Hermannsberg, and adult
subjects were not available to any extent, so most of the work was done with
school children and young girls. A very noticeable feature of the examination
was the great influence of concentration. Most of the boys were keen. The most
interested ones peered between the brim of their hats and the edge of the square
card held just under the eyes. Most of the girls were shy and lackadaisical and
gave poor results. One girl peered intently like the boys and gave a better result
than most of them, being outdistanced by only one lad.
The Guillery spots gave much lower readings than the E test. These spots
subtend an angle of one minute at twelve metres, and this angle is supposed to
be the same as that for the differentiation of the E, The boy who gave a remark-
able reading with the E test was frankly indifferent with the spot test and gave
a mediocre reading. Further work is required to confirm results obtained, as
they give evidence of an acuity up to 370/40. On the other hand, whites of the
party, and of the district, gave an average reading with the E test of 130/40,
which reduces the comparative acuity of the best native reading to about 300%
88
above normal. Great care had to be taken that comrades did not signal to the
test subjects. This was frequently attempted at first, but was checked by careful
watching. The recorded results excluded any where signalling took place. At
times during the examination the sun shone on the boards. Shading the board
reduced the visibility, and was discontinued.
Visual Acuity—Adults. Snellen Test.
WHITES. BLACKS.
C. .. .. 410 feet No. 45... ... 110 feet
M. ... ... 120. ,, No. 51 0... 4. 6185,
T. 120, No. 2... ... 130. ,,
B. 130, No. 47 .. «.. 155),
H. 170 ,, No. 57... .. 1600,
Visual Acuity—Children and Adolescents.
GUILLERY SPOTS.
SNELLEN TEST. White Spot on Black Spot on
Black Ground. White Ground.
Boys—Arthur (#) ... 370 feet 120 feet 80 feet
Percy ... ... 270 ,,
Eugen ... ... 220 ,, 100 =, 60,
Harold ... ... 240. ,, 130 =, 110 _~=—,,
Otto ite wn 210 5, 130 ,, 110 =,
Konrad ... ... 210 , 130, 120 ,,
Nikia .. ... 190, 140, 140,
Rudolf 0 ... §=©96),,
Edwin oo. 180, 180,
Henry ... 0 170, 150,
Walter (2)... 160, 150,
Obed (3) — .... 90 CC, 70 ,,
Girls—Eva gol gas SO0> 5, 120 _,, 110,
Claudia ... ... 160 ,, 90 90
Edda... _... +160,
Irene... ... 170, 90 C, 90 =,
Veronica . 120. ,,
2. Visuat Acuiry For Primary CoLours.
The slides for the Guillery spots were also furnished with colour squares
3-6 mm. in size, which could be displayed in any of the three windows. The
apparatus was unhandy, and time was not available to complete a series of tests.
The following results are interesting, however, and it is hoped to work out the
subject more fully,
WHITE BACKGROUND. BLACK BACKGROUND.
Black. Red. Yellow. Green. Blue. White. Red. Yellow. Green. Blue.
Whites—J. 12 6 40 52 22 44 11
My Bes. ge 12 6 43 38 48 20 18
BY Ae, eet 40 28 40 29 14
2-Caste—Adolf ... 65 48 15 38 11 80 48 24 48 26
Obed... 48 36 14 40 16 70 65 48 65 31
Blacks—Eugen .... 66 34 25 42 65 90 37 70 38 21
The figures in the table represent distances in feet at which the colours were
recognised correctly, not the distances at which the spots were visible, e.g., on
the black background, M., at 38 feet, saw the green spot as white; at 90 feet,
Eugen saw the yellow spot as white; at 90 feet, Obed saw the white spot as yellow,
and at 65 feet the yellow spot as white.
89
3. OBSERVATIONS WITH Masson’s Discs.
Discs were prepared, which were marked with Indian ink on a white back-
ground, to give grey bands on rotation representing a blackness of 1/200, 1/250,
1/300, and 1/350, respectively. Trials with these were unsatisfactory, as it was
difficult to obtain a definite answer from the natives, especially a negative. An
impression was gained that they did see 1/300, and some perhaps 1/350, but the
replies were unconvincing.
4. CoLour SENSE.
1. Colour Nomenclature-—This was investigated by asking the natives to
name the colours of standard coloured papers and Holmegren’s wools. Mr. B.
Maegraith carried out the major portion of this work. The following vocabulary
was obtained. The word “indora” means “the very thing’; a reduplication of a
word has the significance of a qualification or weakening.
White—Tyjilkara indora.
Black——-Urpula indora.
Red—Tataka,
Vermillion—Tataka indora,
Magenta—Tataka tataka.
Pink—Tataka tjilkara tjilkara.
V, deep red, deep brown—Urpula
urpula.
Cadmium orange—Tataka,
Mikado orange—Nduana nduana.
Yellow, ochre, pale yellow—Nduana,
Dirty yellow, capucine yellow —
Nduana nduana.
Green, sage green-~Turka turka.
Blue green, duck egg, pale green,
pale blue—Ilbungera.
Light wisteria—Ilbungera indora.
Blue, indigo, violet, deep blue—
(variously) urakuata ngera.
Uipula, “no name,” “blue”
Purple—‘“No name.”
Puce—Ultmara ultmara.
ndtana indora. One boy gave
ultmara ultmara.
“Ultmara ultmara” is uncertain obviously, it also means “a dust cloud.” It
is doubtful if there is a word for bluc; “urakuata ngera” means “like fire smoke” ;
It appeared on the second day of questioning a group of girls who had replied
“no name” or urpula. The word was unknown to the Mission staff, who have a
good command of the language.
2. Colour Blindness—-Many natives, of both sexes, were tested with
Ishihara’s colour plates, but no cases of colour blindness were detected.
3. Colour Contrast—A hole was cut in the centre of a sheet of bright blue
paper. This was laid on a grey background and covered with tissue paper. The
yellow tinge of the grey circle appeared clearly to us, but not one of the natives
noticed it. When interrogated, they did not look closely, they would glance and
reply “blue,” the colour of the ground, or “don’t know.”
4. Colour Preference-—This test was carried out with females. Strings of
bright “butter beads” were laid out on a form. The individuals were brought up
singly and asked which they liked best. A small handful of these beads was given
them. Beads selected were then removed from the display, and they were asked
again which they liked best; fewer of the beads of this choice were given, and
soon. The beads were white, black, royal blue, turquoise blue, green, yellow, and
red, The results were plotted as a graph for each colour, the number of times
the colour in question represented the first, second, third, fourth, fifth, sixth, or
seventh choice, The centre of gravity of the graph was made the indicator of rela-
tive preference, The following order of preference was obtained :—
Juveniles (17).—Green, yellow, black, royal blue, red, turquoise blue, white.
Adults (7).—Red, turquoise blue, black, yellow, royal blue, white, green.
Considerable difficulty was encountered in examining the elderly women. In
two cases the results were deleted because they simply picked the nearest colour
D
90
each time. As there were 17 juveniles and only 7 adults, the order of preference
for the total 24 cases was the same as that for the juveniles. The high order of
black was a surprise. It is, of course, in good taste.
5. Hearinc.
No test of auditory acuity was carried out. Professor Kerr Grant kindly
supplied a Galton’s whistle for the use of the expedition. The whistle was blown
by means of the pressure pad of a sphygmomanometer. The whistle was not
graduated in wave lengths. There was difficulty in making the natives differen-
tiate between the hiss and the clear whistle note. The test for the upper auditory
limit was carried out repeatedly in the presence of natives and members of the
expedition. The upper range appeared to be identical in both blacks and whites.
6. TAaActTitE SENSATION,
A number of Von Frey’s hairs were prepared by mounting one end of a strand
of horsehair or silkworm gut with glue between two narrow strips of cardboard.
Professor Kerr Grant kindly measured the diameter of the hairs for me, The
pressure weight of each hair was measured by pressing the hair vertically on the
pan of pharmaceutical scales. This last measurement is somewhat of a conjuring
feat, but repeated estimates were made to ensure as great a degree of accuracy as
possible. ‘The hairs were graduated by dividing the pressure weight by the area
of cross section in square millimetres.
The values for the hairs worked out as follows :—
Pressure
Nature of Pressure Diameter Diameter Area in Divided by
Hair.. Wt. in gm. in Inches. in mm. sq. mm. Area,
I. Horsehair .... 0-455 0-009 0+2285 0-041 11-1
Il. ‘a an 0-650 0-009 0-2285 0-041 15:8
Il. an wile, 1-040 0-009 0-2285 0-041 25°3
- a 1-625 0-011 0-2793 0-061 26:7
93 wid 1-495 0-010 02539 0-050 29-9
IV. Silkworm... 6:50 0-018 0:457 0-164 39-6
Horsehair .... 4°55 0-012 0-3047 0-073 62:°7
Silkworm ... 11-70 0-017 0-4316 0-146 80-1
Hairs one, two, three, and six in the above series, marked I., IT., III., and LV.,
respectively, were used in the tests. The natives were told to shut their eyes, and
were watched to see that they did so, and as an additional precaution the part
stimulated was screened. They were told to say “Yes” each time they felt a touch.
From time to time no touch was made at the normal stimulation interval. ‘lhe
softest hair giving a response was recorded. This was the most satisfactory test
carried out with the natives in regard to definiteness of response.
The following is the tabulated list of results obtained :-—
Tactile Sensibility.
Palmar Mid Lower Leg Middle
Tip Right Backof ForeArm Nape Mid Ext. of Sole
Index Finger. Hand. Ant. Surface. of Neck. Surface. of Foot.
Adult Males—Parkbaga —.... IL, II. L II. I. IV.
Korongili i. I. I. II. I. I. IV.
Paddy ee I. II. I. I I. IV.
Manguraka nae IIT. I, Il. I. 1. IV.
Manasseh <— II. I. I. I. I. —
ATE) ctliw toveit site I. I. I, I IL. _
91
Tactile Sensibility (Continued).
Palmar Mid Lower Leg Middle
Tip Right Back of Fore Arm Nape Mid Ext. of Sole
Index Finger. Hand. Ant. Surface. of Neck. Surface. of Foot.
Boys—Harold fe ee II. L. I, I. I. III.
Henry a Stat I. I. I. [. iL. I.
Enos ...0 ewe I, II. I. II. I. IV.
Rudolf Fis Bein I III. I, Il. II. TI.
Percy ec nes II. HI. II. III. Hi. IV.
Obed (4)... ~. I. II. III. II. III. IV.
Adolf ) 1d, II. I. Il. I. UL. IV.
Girls—Veronica ... .... II, II. I. Il. Il. ITI.
Claudia... Il. I. Il. II. JI. III.
Edda shod Il. Hi, I. I. I. III.
Median Result ... .... Il. I, L I. I. IV.
These results are surprising, as the skin of the natives appears harsh and
parchment-like and would be expected to be relatively insensitive. The only
relative figures I have to hand are some figures of Von Frey, quoted by Head
Studies in Neurology, Vol. I., p. 321:—Finger, 3 gm./sq. mm.; back of hand,
12 gm./sq. mm.; forearm, 8 gm./sq. mm., or less. These results must concern
non-manual workers, as I have tried my hairs on labourers and find that hair II.
is an average finding for the tip of the index finger. The mean results for forearm
and leg in my series might be lower if a more sensitive hair had been available for
the tests, as the “I” results represent a substantial majority in these two sites of
stimulation.
7, Patn SENSATION.
The Australian aborigine is so hardy in withstanding physical injury, that
some estimation of pain sensitivity is interesting. An algesimeter was prepared
from a spring balance graduated in half ounces up to five pounds. This was
tested against standard weights and found accurate. A drawing pin was pushed
through a piece of cardboard to steady it, and placed point up on the pan of the
scales. The scales were adjusted to zero. The test subject was instructed to place
the tip of the right index finger on the point of the pin, and then press down until
hurt too much.
The following table gives the best effort of each individual in ounces of
pressure -—_
WHITES. or NATIVES.
Adult Men. Boys. Girls.
T. 8 Manasseh ...... 12 Henoch .... ... 12 Eva... .. 20
H. 12 Paddy ... ... 16 Enos Ae as He) Elfrida ... ... 20
F. ox, 12 Dr. George .... 16 Otto Me Sauer AO Veronica wot
Ha. ... 16 Engerilyeka. .... 28 Reuben ... ... 40 Elsie bot uae 8B
M. 48 Uki on we 28 Adolf (3) wee 40 Claudia 2... 32
Korongili ihe 6 Rudolf 2. .... 56
Penetration of the skin occurred at a pressure of about 16 ounces. A rueful
examination of the finger was the general rule, as though the experience was
more painful than was liked.
8. Reaction TIME.
An attempt was made to estimate reaction times to light and sound. The
native has a reputation for lagging in following the later of two consecutive orders,
i.é., carrying on with the original order when new orders are given. A third test,
therefore, was made after the simple reaction to light and sound; the native had to
respond to a sound stimulus, but not to light. Several light stimuli were made
92
before the sound signal was given. Professor Hicks kindly loaned apparatus for
the experiments. The apparatus consisted of a clockwork drum with smoked paper.
A small electric globe and a switch in one unit, and an electric buzzer and switch
in another unit, were connected in parallel. These units together were connected
in series with a couple of dry cells, a spring switch, and a marker recording on the
drum. The subject examined pressed down the spring switch. When the light
or buzzer switch was closed the circuit was then complete and the marker point
on the drum depressed. In response to the signal, the native released the spring
switch, the circuit was opened, and the marker point rose again. When the drum
was in motion, the interval between stimulus and response was shown by the
interval between the downward and upward movement of the marker line. The
time relation was read by timing a complete revolution of the drum, 42 seconds,
and dividing this by the circumference of the drum, 500 mm. Each millimetre on
the drum record, therefore, indicated a time interval of 0-084 seconds. Unfor-
tunately the drum revolutions were not constant, and these figures are subject to a
10% error.
The natives were schooled and practised in the reactions before the actual
experimental record was made.
The following results were obtained. Figures represent time in seconds :-—
Koringili—Male, 20 years of age. No school:—l. Light Stimulus: 0-336,
0°412, 0-403, 0-386, 0°294, 0°302, 0-318. 2. Sound Stimulus: 0-285,
0°285, 0-285, 0-285. 3. Ignore Light, Respond Sound: 0-420, Differ-
ence, 2 and 3: 0-135.
Manasseh.—Male, 20 years of age. Six years school:—1. Light Stimulus:
0:268, 0°168, 0-236, 0202, 0-236, 0-168, 0-236. 2. Sound Stimulus:
0°218, 0-176, 0-151, 0-160, 0-160, 0-168, 0-160. 3. Ignore Light,
React Sound: 0°320. Difference, 2 and 3: 0-169 to 0-102.
Engerilyeka.—Male, 40 years of age. No school:—l. Light Stimulus:
0°252, 0°227, 0:202, 0-168. 2. Sound Stimulus: 0-244, 0+236.
3. Ignore Light, React Sound: 0-470. Difference, 2 and 3: 0-234 to
0:226.
Paddy.—Male, 50 years of age. No school:—1l. Light Stimulus: 0-386,
0-260, 0-260, 0-236. 2. Sound Stimulus: 0-320, 0-160, 0:151, 0-151.
3. Ignore Light React Sound: 0-495. Difference, 2 and 3: 0-344 to
0-175.
An attempt was made with a boy but his results are an interesting commentary
on divided attention. The environment had too many distractions.
Eugen.—Male, 13 years. Four years school:—1. Light Stimulus: 0-925,
0-540, 0-540, 0°398, 0°368, 0-510, 0-316, 0-286, 1-01, 2:02, 0-453,
0-453, 0-687,
Schafer (Schafer’s Text Book of Physiology, Vol. LL, p. 610) quotes the
following average reaction times from Richet:—Sudden Sound, 0-150 sce; Elec-
tric Flash, 07195 sec. James (Text Book of Psychology, 1904, p. 124) quotes
reaction times for Sound, 0°136-0°167; for Light, 0-150-0-224 sec. For com-
plicated reactions, white signal or no signal, the time was lengthened by 0-03-
0-05 sec.
In our experiments the reaction times were usually longer than those given
by these authorities, and were very variable. The lag of the complicated reaction
measured against the shortest reaction time is four to seven times as long as the
figures quoted by James. ‘he variability of the responses, however, may account
for a large part of the apparently excessive time for a complicated reaction.
93
D.—OBSERVATIONS ON INTELLIGENCE.
The problem of estimating the intelligence of the Australian aborigine in
terms of the intelligence standards accepted by European peoples bristles with
difficulties. The natives have so few social characteristics in common with our
civilization.
The semi-civilized native, represented by the majority of the natives at the
Mission, has some points of contact with our systems of thought, but a frank
application of standard intelligence tests cannot give results which can be com-
pared fairly with those obtained from Europeans, These natives still live a camp
life; they frequently discard their clothes and live a bush life; they are ignorant
of money, which only enters occasionally into their systems of barter with the
Europeans. Many have attended the Mission school, but the teaching is hampered
by the camp life, the nomadic disappearances, and by the absence of books, toys,
problem games, papers, shops, and civilized conversation at home, which play a
large part in the education of the European child. On the other hand, the teaching
is hampered by the numerous duties which the Mission teacher has to combine
with that of schoolmaster. Observations on intelligence are, therefore, beset with
incalculable factors, but this does not seem an efficient excuse to do nothing. The
present paper is presented with this apologia.
All adult natives examined were full bloods.
1. Brnet-Simon TEst.
Time and circumstance allowed of only one complete examination.
No. 101 (General Series), No. 13 (School Series) —~Percy, male, aged 11
years; 34 years at school. This boy ran naked in the bush until he was seven
years of age. Since that time he has lived at the Mission, He is a full-blood
aborigine.
Burt’s arrangement of the Binet-Simon scale was used. Mr. Heinrich acted
as interpreter, as Percy was more familiar with the Aranda language than English,
He accomplished tests to number 25—middle of sixth year—satisfactorily.
In the colour test, “blue” was called “Urbula” (black), but this is normal
with these natives.
No. 25 concerns coins —This was a failure.
No. 27 concerns definitions ——This he could not comprehend properly. He
did, however, state a horse had four legs, and that a table is wood, which
are definitions better than use, so he was conceded this test, which
demands use only.
No, 28. Repeating five figures.—Failed.
No. 33. Concerns coins.—Failed.
No. 36 was the last of the series of successes.
No. 42. Months of year—Succeeded.
No. 47. Sentence building —Succeeded.
No. 48. Copying two diagrams.—One and three-quarters right. Succeeded,
No. 53. Sentence building —Succeeded.
Percy’s score, therefore, reads: 36—3-++4=37=7 years, 4 months.
Percy could only repeat four syllables in English, but accomplished twenty-
one in Aranda.
When testing for discrimination of numbers and visual spatial perception,
three of the Binet-Simon tests were included :—
Firstly. No, 38. Eighth year——Counting backwards from twenty (vide Dis-
crimination of Numbers) :
Nine adult males who had had schooling —Seven succeeded, two failed.
Four adult males, without schooling, who could count to twenty, all failed.
One adult female, with schooling, succeeded.
Two schoolboys failed.
94
Secondly. No. 56. Twelfth year—Inferring situation or emotion in a picture
(vide Visual Spatial Perception) :
Two out of thirty succeeded.
Thirdly. No. 57. Thirteenth year.—Resisting suggestion of lines (vide
Visual Spatial Perception) :
Twenty-nine adult males tested—Correct, thirteen: School, six; no school,
six; doubtful, one. Left line longer (counted a success by Yerks), nine:
School, three; no school, six. Failed, three: School, one; no school,
two. Unable to comprehend test, two.
Three schoolboys tested—Correct, two: Fifteen and thirteen years of age.
Failed, one, eleven years of age.
Four adult females tested.—Correct, one, schooling. Failed, two, no school-
ing. Unable to comprehend test, one.
2. PERFORMANCE TESTs.
1. Puzzle A consisted of nine simple geometrical figures cut out of a sheet
of thick cardboard (vide fig. 1). A roughly executed landscape in thick brush
_——
WH Wy Pe oO
Fig. 1. Actual size, 18 in. by 12 in.
lines gave orientation lines for the circle, square, oblong, and equilateral triangle.
Other figures would fit in one direction only, and the lines were of less
importance. Only one man, No. 49, of thirty-eight individuals tested, troubled to
match lines in placing the pieces.
The test was shown to the examinec with all the pieces in place, The pieces
were then pushed out of their holes before him, the board laid down in front of
him, the pieces placed right side up, and the test subject told to make each one
sit down in its proper camp. Individuals who did not complete the test resigned
after vainly trying to force wrong pieces into the wrong holes by strong pressure.
Similarly, the ones that took a long time to complete the test usually wasted time
by trying to force misfits to conform to the hole selected.
95
The average civilized child of four years of age should complete this test.
This was the first occasion in which any of the natives had met with a problem
of this nature.
The following is a table of results -—
Pugzle A,
Serial Years Number of Pieces Time
Number. Sex. Age. School. Correctly Placed. Required. Remarks.
F. 50 0 1 —_
10 M. 45 0 3 —_—
2 M. 40 0 5 —_
3 M. 55 0 35
5 M. 55 0 5 =
69 F. 44 0 6 —
1 M. 50 0 9 5:0 min.
16 M. 60 0 3 5:0 ,
7 M. 40 0 5 355,
53 M. 22 6 ‘i 35 5;
49 M. 25 6 - Se Sra Js, Matching lines
66 F. 25 0 i 3°25 ,,
50 M. 30 6 , 3-0, Matched square
102 M. 13 1 + 3-0,
8 M. 45 0 . 25,
39 M. 50 ? 5 2:5,
9 M. 45 0 ss 20 =,
23 M. 30 0 4 2-0 =, Careful
54 M. 25 0 7 2:0 ,,
21 M. 20 0 . 1-75 _,,
60... =F 22 0 " £75",
104 (8)... FS. 14 4 7 1-75, + Giggling
11 M. 65 0 fa 1-5,
25 M. 25 0 ‘, 1-5),
20 M. 55 0 3 £5=s,,
43 M. 20 6 4s Aero 6 5
42 M. 25 4 2 15,
22 M. 24 0 * 130i,
35 M. 40 6 ‘9 1:3,
45 M. 24 0 5 13) 55
101 M. 11 3 ‘ 1-25 ,,
19 M. 21 0 re 10 =,
36 M. 18 4 - 1:0,
56 M. 20 6 5 10 =,
105 M. 15 4 9 10,
106 F. 19 5 "5 1:0,
107 (3) M. 8-5 2 iM 0-75 ,,
37 M. 18 4 0-66 ,,
2. Pusezle B—This was a Dearborn Form Board, kindly lent by the Director
of Education through the good offices of Dr. Constance Davey. It was made
of half-inch wood, with the pieces fitting into quarter-inch depressions. The
board and pieces were stained uniformly black. The scheme of the puzzle is
drawn diagrammatically in fig. 2. It will be seen that there are two sets of four
geometrical figures. For one set the corresponding pieces are two halves repre-
senting a longitudinal division of the figure. For the second set there are three
pieces, representing a transverse division with a longitudinal subdivision of one
half. The big difficulty in the puzzle arises if the subdivisions last mentioned are
96
arranged longitudinally; they fit satisfactorily, yet the puzzle is insoluble until this
arrangement is broken up. If the subject has the good fortune to place the non-
subdivided half in the form first, the solution is much easier. With four chances
of making this primary mistake practically all experienced it, yet with the diamond
and hexagon it seemed more difficult to resolve than with the other figures.
This puzzle, unlike puzzle A, had as a complication the possibility of pieces
being wrong side up.
LH
Fig, 2. Actual size, 18 in. by 12 in.
The board completed was shown to the native. The pieces were tipped out
in front of him, and he was told to put them back into their proper camps.
The following is a lst of results :-—
Pugsle B,
Serial Years Relative Success
Number. Sex, Age. School. with Puzzle. Time, Remarks.
8 M. 45 0 Failed
23 M. 30 0 Two incomplete Diamond and Ilexagon
Subdivisions unsolved.
60 F, 22 0 ip ” ”
66 7 F, 25 0 4 5 ‘3 ”
104 (2) .... F, 14 4 " 5 ” ”
25 M. 25 0 One incomplete Hexagon Subdivision
unsolved.
50 M. 30 6 Complete 21-0min. Solved Diamond Sub-
division Block: worried
by final piece wrong
side up.
52 M. 45 6 a 15-0 ,,
102 M. 13 1 *s 15-0 ,,
20 M. 55 0 35 13-0 ,,
22 M. 24 0 i 11-5,
97
Pugsle B (Continued).
Serial Years Relative Success
Number. Sex. Age School. with Puzzle. Time. Remarks.
42 M. 25 4 ef 10-5 _,, Puzzled by Diamond
and Hexagon.
43 M. 20 6 % 6-0 ,,
45 M. 24 0 ii 6-0 ,,
49 ae M. 25 6 % 6-0 ,,
107(2)... M. 85 2 if 6-0 ,,
101... M. 11 3 . 5-0 ,,
53 M. 22 6 Ff 455 ,,
56 M. 20 6 5 45 ,,
106 F. i955 it AaB %
35 M. 40 6 x 4:3,
21 M 20 0 = ER ae
37 M. 18 6 is 3-0,
54 M. 25 0 » 3-0 ,,
3. Estimation of Length of a Line with a slide apparatus (vide Visual Spatial
Perception). Twenty-nine male adult natives were tested with this apparatus -—
Six failed completely—Nos. 1, 3, 7, 8, 9, and 16.
‘Two gave very big mean variations—Nos. 5 and 10.
The remaining twenty-one performed the test satisfactorily.
Three adult females—Nos. 60, 66, and 69-—failed in the test.
4. Spotted Card Tests (vide Discrimination of Numbers).—Twenty-six adult
natives were tested by showing pairs of cards with different numbers of spots.
They had to state which was the greater card with the number of spots :—
Three could not be made to understand what was required of them.
Two could only understand in so far as birds were drawn instead of simple
spots.
Four more were poor at guessing.
The remainder, seventeen in number, were remarkably good at guessing.
Only those who could count well were able to arrange cards in a sequence.
5. Porteus Maze Tests——-The results here were marred by a mistake in copy-
ing the fourteenth year maze. The mistake was overlooked owing to a last minute
hurry before departure. This error spoilt the first major slip-away trap of the
test, but left the second intact. Also, the maze tests were carried out in part only,
as a separate series of tests was found to be unfeasible, and this problem was
slipped in at the end of a long series of other examinations. The fifth year maze
was used as an explanatory basis for the test. The native was told it was a cattle
vard, and, tracing the course with a pencil, it was shown that the bullock must
not go down any of the races where the end was closed. He was then given a
pencil and told to go ahead with the sixth-year maze. The track was marked in
pencil and a separate sheet used for each person. The records were preserved.
The following is a table of results. If the maze was correct, 1e., if the line
drawn did not in any case go beyond the margins of any outlet in a wrong direc-
tion, a sign “R” is recorded . Lf the line transgressed beyond the limits of any
outlet in a wrong direction the error is recorded by the sign “E,” followed by a
figure stating the number of times an error was made in executing the maze. The
Roman numerals denote the various mazes in their year values; the garbled four-
teenth year maze is denoted by the sign G 14:—
PORTEUS MAZE.
Years Maze Results.
Age. School. VI. VI. VIII. IX.
Name. Se x XI. XII, G 14
43 Gustav M. 20 6 R — _ R R R
35 Ezekiel .. M. 40 6 R —_ — — R R E-1 R
37 Kangei M. 18 4 R —_— — R — R = R
98
PORTEUS MAZE (Continued).
Years Maze Results.
Name. Sex. Age. School. VI. VII. VIIL IX, x. XI. XI, Gi4
19 Tondalbin.. M. 21 0 R — R R _ R — R
54 Uki M. 25 0 R — R — R R shit R
49 Albert M. 25 6 R — R — R R —_ R
101 Percy . MI 3 R — R po R R —- R
66 Yaberkulla.. F. 25 0 R — R — R R — R
103 Veronica .... F. 18 5 El — R pe R R — R
56 Powell M. 20 6 R ~~ R —_ R Eel — R
42 George M. 25 4 R — R — El R — R
53 Lucas . M. 22 6 R — R ee R R — E-l
104 Eugenie (2) F. 14 4 R — R = R R = E:2
45 Dr. George.. M. 24 0 R — R —_ El R — E-l
Konrad... M. 12 3 R — R — — E-t — E-1
102 Nikia M 13 1 R a R i R R = E-4
25 Tundabinya M. 25 0 R ~— R — E-4 R — R
23 Kurumalyi.. M. 30 0 R — R R R E22 — _
22 Ally .. 2. M. 24 0 R — R R E-1 El — E-+2
50 Erukinya... M. 30 6 R — E:2 E2 El — i =
7 Engerilyeka M. 40 0 E-3 E-2 E3 E4 E6 Ed — E:3
Elfrida F, 19 ? R R E:2
27 Natjulpuka.. M. 60 0 — _— E:5 = E:6 E10 — E-1l
39 Namitjera .. M 50 ? Ed — Abandoned
3. GENERAL OBSERVATIONS.
1. Games——The only game known to be played by male children and adults
is a German game called Milton. This is an elaborate form of noughts and
crosses, Three ‘concentric” rectangles are drawn on the ground. The rectangles
are joined together by diagonal lines at the corners, and by perpendicular lines at
the centres of the sides. Sticks or stones are used as markers, the intersections of
the lines and the three rectangles are the points of attack. The object is to place
three markers on three consecutive points in a line. Children were observed play-
ing this game and showed themselves proficient. Girls do not play this game.
The girls are good at cat’s cradles. A large number of these were collected
by Mr. Hale and Mr. Tindale for the Adelaide Museum. Boys do not play
cat’s cradles.
2. Memory.—
i. Remote memory of the natives is very good. Older members of the
tribe can give detailed descriptions of long distant incidents, There is
an eight group marriage system in the tribe, and everyone is tribally
related to everyone. Even the small children appear to know the precise
tribal relationship between all the individuals in the community.
ii. Immediate memory was actually tested only in the case of the boy Percy
—auditory, twenty-one syllables; visual, one and three-quarters of two
diagram tests. Dr. Harold Davies found that the natives were very
quick in picking up and reproducing singing notes.
ui, Rote memory—Pastor Albrecht expressed the opinion that the Christian
natives were fairly good with their catechism as long as the normal order
was preserved; if, however, the order of questioning was changed about,
they became confused.
3. Conservation —Vhe natives have no idea of conserving food or clothing in
ordinary life. Starving natives will eat as much food as they can hold, if it be
given them, but will not think to preserve the surplus. If a man be given some
99
good clothes, he will exchange them readily for the ruined garments of a friend.
In normal life they have no need to conserve food; while clothing is worn, if at
all, in imitation of the white man. They do conserve their native tobacco, which
at times has to be collected at a distance. They are extraordinarily careful in the
use and preservation of any plug tobacco which they may receive from white
people.
4, Mental Defective—One full blood youth was mentally defective. No
relatives were afflicted similarly. He was microcephalic. He exhibited idiolalia.
He was able to point out eyes, mouth, etc., in the picture of a dingo. He was good
tempered, and not vicious in habit except for open masturbation. He accom-
panied his relatives in their wanderings.
E.—SCHOLASTIC TESTS.
Two afternoons were employed in class examination of the school children.
All the children are taught in one room by Mr. Heinrich, who combines. the
occupation of schoolmaster with multifarious other duties at the Mission. School
hours and lessons are scheduled on normal lines, but are subject to contingencies.
School books are partly in English, partly in the Aranda language. All books are
kept in the schoolroom.
Outside school hours the children have duties about the Mission, or with
relatives in the camp nearby. They retire to dormitories, one for boys, and one
for girls, about 8 p.m.
The senior scholars varied from eight to fifteen years of age, and had had
two anda half to four and a half years’ schooling. They were examined in writing,
spelling, arithmetic, and drawing.
Junior pupils were mostly about six to eight years of age; some were older,
being new from the bush, All had had about four months schooling, and were
unable to write. They were examined in drawing only, but they exhibited their
prowess by chanting letters of the alphabet as they were written on the blackboard.
During the examination, copying was prevented as far as possible by alternat-
ing seniors and juniors, and by supervision.
Most of the children were full blood aborigines. Some were the offspring
of one full blood parent, and one half white parent. ‘These latter children are
“6307
indicated by the mark “3” in the tables of results.
Senior Scholars.
Nature or TEsts.
The material for the tests and their interpretation was drawn from Burt’s
Mental and Scholastic Tests (London County Council, 1921).
Writing and Spelling—RBlank unruled sheets of paper were issued, and on
this each pupil wrote his or her name. The following words were then read out
slowly and repeatedly by Mr. Heinrich, and the children wrote down the words—a,
it, cat, run, bad, but, table, even, fill, money, sugar, number, rough, raise, scrape,
surface, pleasant, saucer, decide, business, carriage. These words were taken from
Burt’s Graded Vocabulary Test (p. 354), and represent the first three of each set
of ten words that he gives for the age groups 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, and 11. Owing to
language being essentially foreign, pat and bat were accepted for bad, race for
raise, and suffers for surface. Writing was judged from these answers in accord-
ance with Burt’s specimens, p. 371, e¢ seg. Spelling merit was recorded by the
number of words corrcctly spelt. This figure was multiplied by 10/3, and awarded
an age ratio by reference to Burt’s Norms for Boys (p. 402), plotted as graphs.
Where the score was a figure below the lowest norm of six years, an arbitrary
age was assigned by reference to an ideal extension of the graph.
100
Arithmetic—This examination was Burt’s test of Four Fundamental Rules,
pp. 366 to 369. This represents a series of problems in addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and division. The score is read by the number of correct figures
given by five minutes’ work on each set of problems. Typewritten copies of Burt’s
tests had been prepared. Firstly, each pupil was given the sheet of the sums in
addition, face down. Lach child then wrote his or her name on the reversed sheet.
The nature of the problem was explained, At a signal, all the children turned over
their sheets and set to work. After five minutes, at an order, all the sheets were
turned over again and collected. A similar procedure was carried out for the
sheets of sums on subtraction, multiplication, and division, respectively. ‘he
score for each sheet was read in accordance with Burt’s instructions, pp. 301-302,
and an age ratio given to the score by reference to graphs prepared from Burt’s
Norms for Boys, pp. 405-406. Graphs were prolonged ideally to junior ages
below the lowest given norms of six years for addition, subtraction, and multi-
plication, seven years for division.
Drawing—1. The children performed the Porteus Maze Test for Age IV.
They all succeeded. The efforts varied in excellence of performance and were
graded into three classes:—Class I., lines between angles straight, well centred,
and parallel to the sides of the figure; Class I1., lines less straight, etc; Class III.,
lines meandering. This classification, of course, only refers to variations in neuro-
muscular control, and care of execution. This grading brought out an interesting
sex differentiation :—-Class I.: Boys, 5. Class Il.: Boys, 12; Girls, 7. Class IIL:
Boy, 1; Girls, 5.
2. Sheets of plain paper were distributed and the children told to draw pic-
tures of a man, an emu, anda dog. The assessment of the merit of these drawings
and their co-relation to an age ratio is no easy matter, An attempt has been made
to do so, after a careful noting of the points of each picture, and a study of
Burt’s comments and examples, pp. 317-326, 383-394.
The general features of the children’s drawings can be analysed as follows :—
Total number, 32—Boys, 17; girls, 15,
Drawings of Men:
Man, Type A. 1—Profile facing left, walking. Ilead upright oval, anterior
line shows angular prominence of nose, then depression of lips, then angle
of chin, and then is carried back and down to join the anterior line of
the chest. Posterior line of head curves in to indicate neck and is con-
tinued into the posterior body line. Anterior and posterior body lines
convex, and continued below into anterior and posterior lines of left leg,
which converge to the ankle without indicating the bulge of the calf. The
lines then turn to the left to form a roughly triangular foot without
indication of toes. The lines of the right leg, similar in character to
those of the left leg, join the posterior line of the left leg, sometimes
slightly overlapping this line. Drawn by: Toys, nil; girls, 3.
Man, Type A, 2—Similar to A. 1, except that posterior body line is curved ta
show hollow of back and prominence of buttock. Drawn by: Boys, 3;
girls, nil.
Man, Type A, 3—Similar to A. 2, except that posterior line shows strong
angle to represent prominence of the left shoulder. Drawn by: Boys, 6;
girl, 1.
Man, Type A. 4—Similar to A. 1, but anterior line of head shows no features.
Drawn by: Boy, 1; girls, nil.
Man, Type A. 5—Similar to A. 3, only left leg is posterior and right leg
lines join anterior line of left leg. Drawn by: Boy, 1; girls, nil.
‘otal numbers: Boys, 11; girls, 4.
101
Man, Type B.—Head and body as in Type A., but body continued below into
two legs. Anterior body line runs on down front of one leg, round foot
up to the crutch, then down front of the second leg and returns to con-
tinue in the posterior line of the body. Drawn by: Boys, 2; girl, 1.
One of these boys shows the body line typical of A. 3.
Man, Type C.—Head circular. Body and limbs linear, Legs bent to indi-
cate: running left, girls, 2; running right, girl, 1; legs scribbled, girls, 2.
Total girls, 5.
Man, Type D, 1—Tlead oval, body oval, triangular skirt, legs with feet
turned to the Icit. Drawn by: Boy, 1.
Man, Type D, 2—Head oval, with loops added to left side to represent nose
and lips. Legs with feet turned to left. Drawn by: Girl, 1.
Man, Type D, 3—Head circular, body triangular, legs with feet turned out,
Drawn by: Boy, 1.
In addition, one boy and one girl drew the head and bust only of the man,
the fragment being of the A. type.
One boy and three girls did not attempt the drawing of a man.
Eyes, Types A, and B.—Represented by dot under an arc: Boys, 4; girls, 1.
By dot only: Boys, 7; girls,0. Unrepresented: Boys, 2; girls, 4.
Eyes, Type D.—Unrepresented: Boys, 2; girl, 1.
Eyes, Type C._—No features, twice; two eyes only, twice; two eyes, vertical
line for nose, cross line for mouth, once.
Ears—These were drawn by five boys and one girl.
Hair of Head.—This was shaded in by six boys and one girl. Three boys
drew a moustache, one boy a beard and side whiskers.
Arms —In pictures of Types A. and B. these were always shown stretched
out to the left. ‘The arms took origin from the back line of the body in nine
pictures by boys and two by girls; from the middle of the shoulder area of the
body in four pictures by boys, and were omitted by one girl. The body was
represented as transparent to the right arm by two boys and two girls, The arms
originated in the anterior chest line in D. 1 and D. 2, and from the neck in D, 3,
and from the head or body line in type C. The arms were somewhat shaped by
ten boys and no girls, The elbow was indicated by eight boys and one girl. Three
boys drew the hands with five fingers, three with four fingers, and four as enlarged
ends of the arms. Only one girl of the A. and B. groups indicated a hand, and
that with three fingers. Two C. type pictures gave cross lines, and one circles,
to represent hands.
Knees.—Six boys and one girl gave some indication of knees. The girl,
type A. 3, produced a very confused picture by extending the lines of the right
leg up to the level of the hips.
Hals—These were occasionally represented, The simplest form was a trans-
' verse line across the top of the head. Three boys and five girls did this. Two
boys added to this shading to indicate the crown of the hat. ‘Three boys and two
girls drew a crown to the hat outside the line of the head.
Clothes —The great majority of the pictures gave no markings on the body
or limbs to suggest clothing, except that six boys and one girl shaped the heel of
the foot squarely, suggesting the heel of a boot, and one other girl added spurs
to this heel. Yet there was no representation of natural features of a naked
body or scarring, except that one girl added a rectangular pendent in the crutch
of a type B. picture. Four boys did make an effort to represent clothes. No. 14
drew a double line across the neck, and a similar line across the hips, and added
two vertical lines down the chest and a curved line across the shoulder. No. 9
drew a single line across the neck. No. 10 did this and added some vertical lines.
102
No. 15 drew a line across the neck, and shaded the chest vertically and the hips
horizontally. D. 1 is probably a representation of a skirt.
Weapons—One boy and one girl drew double lines from the hands to the
ground for a stick or a gun. One boy drew a crude gun extending horizontally
from the arms. One boy showed a shield in the left hand, and a boomerang in
the upraised right hand. One girl drew a crude shield for a type C. man.
Action—This is well represented by four boys and one girl, fairly by five
boys and three girls.
Proportions are given in the tables of results. The length of the head from
vertex to chin is taken as unity, and length of body, legs, and arms expressed in
terms of this unit under the symbols B/H, L/H, and A/H, respectively.
Drawings of an Emu:
‘These were carried out in a much more spirited manner on the whole.
The bird was invariably represented facing left, and in profile. The action of
running was realized excellently by two boys (Nos. 1 and 3); well by six
boys and one girl (No. 23), fairly by one boy; slightly by two boys and
one girl. Action was nil in drawings by six boys and thirteen girls. General
outline was excellent in the picture by one boy (No. 3). His was the only
case where the curve of the crest met the beak at a sharp angle. His was
also the only case where a three dimensional character was given by contour lines
of feathering. Otherwise, outline drawings were as follows :-—Good, six boys,
one girl; fair, seven boys, three girls; poor, one boy, three girls; crude, two boys,
eight girls. Shading lines were common in this picture only, eleven boys and
three girls attempting some representation of feathering, The thighs were shaped
by eleven boys and two girls. The hock joint was represented by fourteen boys
and two girls. The legs were drawn as simple straight lines by no boys, but by
nine girls. The feet were represented in a natural fashion by three boys; in a
semi-natural fashion by three boys; in a conventional manner as a trident by nine
boys and eleven girls; feet were omitted by one boy and four girls.
Drawings of a Dog:
This animal was pictured invariably in profile facing left. Action was portrayed
excellently by five boys (Nos. 1, 3, 11, 14, and 15); well by one girl (No, 28);
fairly by six boys and four girls; poorly by three boys and one girl; action
nil, three boys and six girls. Three girls did not attempt the drawing. The
general outline was excellent in the pictures by the five boys and one girl men-
tioned above; good, one boy; fair, six boys, four girls; crude, five boys and
seven girls. The drawing by boy No. 11 was remarkable, being futurist in
character but realizing intense action. The ears were drawn as follows:—
Two ears erect, three boys, eight girls; one ear erect, two boys, one girl;
one ear erect, one drooping, one girl; one ear drooping, eleven boys; two ears
drooping, one boy; no ears, two girls. Tails were almost always long and curving
up or coiled up. One boy drew a stumpy tail. ‘Three girls drew long down- .
turned tails.
Composition —-Five boys and nine girls made no attempt to combine the
figures. Eight boys and two girls made some attempt to portray a chase. A more
realistic result was obtained by four boys (Nos. 3, 11, 14, 15).
As the full blood aboriginal children and the three-quarter caste children
live under identical circumstances and receive the same education, it is interesting
to note if the results show any variation where there has been an infusion of
white blood. The figures in the preceding table have, therefore, been split up into
age groups, and further divided according to sex and blood, and average figures
calculated. Nos. 16 and 23 have been eliminated in these averages as their period
of school has been relatively small.
Remarks on Pictures
Draw-
Scholastic Mental Ages.
Type of Proportions
ing Pic-
P.IV. tures.
Arithmetic.
Addn. Subt. Mult.
Spell-
Years Writ-
Serial
General.
B/H L/H A/H
A.2 4+0 2:2 2-0
Man.
Ay.
Div.
6°6 7-1
Age. School. ing. ing.
Sex.
Number.
9
8
11
12
Lk
IL.
IL.
770 6:3) 81
15
14
14
13
13
M.
Crude
2-6 1-5 2°5
A.3 3:0 3-0 3:0
B.
5°3 6:0 6:1 7:0 61
6:0
8-9
8-9
M.
16
Realistic
7-0 7-3 8:4 6:8 7:4
M.
1 (4)...
Emu 3 dimens.
,
L A.3 2:0 2:3 2:5 Realistic
7-0 7:0 7-6 7-3 7-2
M.
3 (4)...
A.3 2-0 3-0 2-0
8
7
10
I.
5°6 5-9 7:2 6:7 6-4
6:0 6:8 7:7 71 6-9
M.
Crude
A.5S 2:5 2-1 1-0
IT,
istic
Real
L A.3 2-5 2:8 2-0
4-8 5:8 6:7 6:6 6-0
5*5 5:7 6:2
6-0
65 693
13
12
12
M.
14
Man not drawn
4-5
M.
7 (3)
12 (#) ...
10
11
15
Shield, boomerang
A.3 2:5 2-0 2:5
8
7-7 6:7 6:3 72 7-0 IL
4-5
8-9
M.
2:0 2:0 1°5
A4 1:5 2-0 1:3
9 B.
9
9
Il.
II.
5-9 5-7 6:5 5:6
M.
M.
Gun extended; huge bullet in flight
59 6:0 6:3 6:5 6-2
12
12
11
A.2 4:0 2-0 3-0
5:6
5:0 5-5 6:3
3-0
3-0
M.
Crude
Crude
Crude
13
103
Emu toes natural
>
A3 2:0 1-6 11
8
IL.
6-5 6:7 6:7 7-0 6:7
6:5 5-7
3:5
10
Head and bust only
A.2 3-0 1-6 1-2
7
6
6
Il,
IT.
7
8-5 265
14
13
@)... M.
21 (3)... F.
20
“
Crude
2-6 2:41:55
A.l 2-2 2:0 —
B.
570 5-5 6-1 6:6 5-8
7-1
II.
4-8 6:0 5-8 6:5 5:8
5:3 5:6 5+9
4-5
confused legs
’
? gun, spurs
A.3 2:0 1:3 1-3
9
7
Il.
I.
5-6
5°7
28
AL 1:2 1-2 1-2
29
Man not drawn
Crude
4:8 5-6 5-6
6-5 6-0
2°5
13
23
D.2 1-2 1-2 0-7
6
22
30 =
27 (2) ....
26
Head only
II.
5*3 5-7 64 6:5 6-1
6-0
6:7
3-0
3-0
Man not drawn
4:8 5:4 5:8 6:5 5-6
11
F,
1-2 1-2 1-2
Crude
Crude
Crude
Crude
32
18
31
7 6-0
8-5 2-5
F,
2:0
25
Man not drawn
Crude
19 (3)
455 5-6 5:8 6:5 5:6
104
Scholastic Tests —Averages of Groups.
Number Years Average Average Average Scholastic Mental Years.
Individuals of Age Years Arithmetic
Blood. Sex. in Group. Age Groups. of Group. of School, Writing. Spelling. Average. Drawing.
Full M. 3 13—15 13-6 4-2 7-6 6-8 6-7 8-6
Fy M. 3 *. 13-3 4.2 8-384 7-0 10+3
Full M. 5 11—12 11-6 3°3 7°5 6-4 5-5 8-4
3 M. 2 Ch, 12-0 4-0 6°7 7-6 6-4 8-0
Full M. 2 8-5—10 9°5 3-0 6-7 5:8 5-5 7-0
2 M. 1 8-5 8:5 2:5 7-0 6-0 5:2 7-0
Full F. 3 13-0 4-0 8:3 6-1 5°5 7°3
3 F, 1 55 14 455 8 7-1 5-8 6:0
Full F. 2, 1—12 12-0 3+2 75 673 6-0 655
2 F. 1 3 11-0 3-0 8-0 6-7 5:6 6:0
Full F. 5 8-10 8-5 2-4 6-6 6°3 5-4 5°8
i F, 2 +s 8-2 2:2 6°5 6-1 4-9 5:0
The most definite result of this grouping is to show a superiority of scholastic
attainment by the senior boys with white blood over that of their full-blooded
companions. It is tempting to draw a conclusion that the full-blooded children
are retarded in mental growth with increasing age to a greater degree than
children with some degree of European ancestry. The numbers are too few to
warrant this deduction, however.
Junior Scholars.
Porteus Maze III]. and IV. year tests were judged with regard to quality of
performance. Classes IV. and V. were added to the three classes already used in
the case of the senior scholars. Class IV. represented efforts where the test line
touched, or nearly touched the maze lines. Class V. to cases who failed in the
test by overstepping the prescribed boundaries. The following is a summary of
results :-— Mental Age
Number Examined. Porteus III. Porteus IV. of Pictures.
12 Boys, 6—8 years oe Class III. 3 Class III. 3 6 years 4
ded » IV. 8 » IV. 6 Care 3
a ie gs 1 Se 3 4 , 5
8 Girls, 6—8 years ot » Jil. 2 ~» ih. 41 6 0
‘ » IV. 6 » IV. 4 SF 4
_ » V- 0 a OM 3 4, 4
Boy, 13 years we as » LIL. w IV. 6,
a 8 mtr an a * ALT, » JIL o 5,
a be an — » IIL 5 ly
st te et sat » LIL, » IIL Kags
Girl, 9 years nr shag » ill. » ILIV. ae
3, GRADED READING TEs.
Several natives were asked to carry out Burt’s Reading Accuracy Test.
Ibid., pp. 339-341. The following results were obtained :—
Serial No. Number of Scholastic
of Native. Sex. Age. Words Read. Mental Age.
101 fete M. 11 44 8-4 years
105 M. 15 29 6-9,
103 F, 18 35 5.
43 M. 20 31 Pel
56 M. 20 35 P20 sss
53 M. 22 64 10-4,
42 M. 25 34 Pep
49 M. 25 71 ll-1 i,
No. 101 is ie same youth as No. 13, and No. 105 the same youth as No. 9,
in the School Group Series of senior scholars.
105
AN ANALYSIS OF THE VEGETATION OF KANGAROO ISLAND AND
THE ADJACENT PENINSULAS.
By J. G. Woop, M.Sc.
(Department of Botany, University of Adelaide),
[Read June 12, 1930.]
CONTENTS, Page
I. Inrropuction es re Re - “3 re ee oy .. 105
Il. Sotrces .. Ds we es a Bs 4¥5 ha Ser .. 106
III. TorocrapHicaL AND GEOLOGICAL ne re ‘sf 3 18 .. 106
IV. Ciimatic 4 At by hye Ae ag an ae .. 108
V. ANALYSIS OF THE FLoRA oF THE REGION... a 4 OB au -. 109
(a) Early Migrations of the Southern Flora .. 3 4s «. 109
(b) Restricted Species GN, x x x
S. odoratus .... sb _— bs Ch. x x x x
§. Cunninghamit hd N. x x x x x
Cymbonotus Lawsonianus — Ch. x x x x
Microseris scapigerus Aes a G. x x x x x
wk
138
LITERATURE CITED.
Apamson, R. S., and Oszorn, T. G. B—“The Ecology of the Eucalyptus
Forests of the Mount Lofty Ranges, South Australia.” Trans. Roy. Soe.
S. Austr., vol. xlvili. (1924), p. 87.
Brack, J. M.—‘‘Flora of South Australia.” Adelaide, 1922-1929,
BaiLey, F, M.—‘The Queensland Flora.” Brisbane, 1900-1902.
Bentuam, G.—‘‘Flora Australiensis.” London, 1866.
Bonpianp, A.—Description des plantes rares cultivées a Malmaison et a
Navarre.” Paris, 1813.
CLELAND, J. B., and Brack, J. M.—‘‘An Enumeration of the Vascular
Plants of Kangaroo Island.” Trans, Roy. Soc. S. Austr., vol. li. (1927),
p. 24.
CLELAND, J. B., and BLacx, J. M.—‘List of Plants from the Encounter Bay
District.” Sth. Austr. Naturalist, vol. vi., No. 2 (1925).
Cietanp, J. B— “The Plants of the Encounter Bay District.” Notes on the
Ecology. Sth. Austr. Naturalist, vols. vii., ix. (1926-1928).
Fenner, C.—“Adelaide, South Australia; A Study in Human Geography.”
Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., vol. li. (1927), p. 193.
Fenner, C—‘“A Geographical Enquiry into the Growth, Distribution and
Movement of Population in South Australia, 1836-1927.” Trans. Roy.
Soc. 5. Austr., vol. liii. (1929), p. 79.
Fietp NaTuratists’ CLus oF VicTorta.—‘A Census of the Plants of Vic-
toria.” Melbourne, 1928.
Grecory, J. W.—‘“The Dead Heart of Australia.” 1906,
GrirriTH Taytor.— ‘The Australian Environment.” Advisory Council of
Science and Industry, Memoir No. 1. Melbourne, 1918.
Herserr, D, A~—“The Major Factors in the Present Distribution of the
Genus Eucalyptus.” Proc. Roy. Soc. Qld., vol. xl. (1929), p. 165.
Ilooxer, J. D—Introductory Essay to the Flora of Tasmania.’ London,
1859,
Howcuin, W.—“Suggestions on the Origin of the Salt Lagoons of Southern
Yorke Peninsula.” Trans. Roy. Soc, S. Austr., vol. xxv. (1901), p. 1.
Maren, J. H.—“Critical Revision of Genus ‘Eucalyptus,’ ” pt. viii. (1909),
p. 213
Matnen, J. H—“A Contribution to the Botany of South Australia.” Trans.
Roy. Soc. S. Austr., vol, xxxii, (1908), p. 252.
Mainen, J. Il.—‘Census of the Plants of New South Wales.”
Mawson, D.—“Geographical Features of Part of Eyre Peninsula.” ‘Trans.
Roy. Soc. S. Austr., vol. xxxi, (1906), p. 71.
Mapican, C, T—*The Geology of the Fleurieu Peninsula,” pt. i. The Coast
from Sellick’s Hill to Victor Harbour. Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr.,
vol, xlix (1925), p. 198.
Pixon, F.—Voyage de décourvertes aux Terres Australes, (Navigation et
géographie.) Paris, 1815.
Perrig, A. H. K., JArrert, P. H., and Patron, R. T—*The Vegetation of
the Black Spur Region.” A Study on the Ecology of some Australian
Mountain Eucalyptus Forests. 1. The Mature Plant Communities.
Journ. Ecol,, xvii. (1929), p. 223.
29.
30.
139
Ropway, L.--"The Tasmanian Flora.” Hobart, 1923.
‘Tare, R.—“The Botany of Kangaroo Island.” Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr.,
vol. vi. (1883), p. 116.
Tate, R——‘“The Geological and Botanical Features in Southern Yorke
Peninsula.” Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., vol, xiii, (1889), p..112.
Warp, L. K.—‘The Plan of the Earth and its Origin.” Proc. Roy. Geogr. Soc.
of Austr. (S.A. Branch), vol. xxviii. (1926), p. 171.
Woop, J. G.—‘Floristics and Ecology of the Mallee.” Trans. Roy. Soc.
S. Austr., vol. liti, (1929), p. 359.
Morrison, A.—‘‘List of Extra-tropic West Australian Plants.” West
Australian Year Book, 1900-1901, p. 308. '
Prescotr, J. A——‘“The Vegetation Map of South Australia.” Trans. Roy.
Soc. S. Austr., vol. liii, (1929), p. 7.
140
NOTES ON THE FLORA NORTH-WEST OF PORT AUGUSTA
BETWEEN LAKE TORRENS AND TARCOOLA.
By J. Burron Cretanp, M.D.
(Botanical Identifications and Confirmations by J. M. Black.)
[Read June 12, 1930.]
Piates V. To VIT,
At the end of October and the beginning of November, 1929, the writer had
the opportunity of accompanying Mr. E. Julius, the Conservator of Forests, and
Mr. C. I. Goode, Pastoral Inspector, in making a rapid survey for commercial
Sandalwood of the district north-west of Port Augusta. From Port Augusta the
general direction of the East-West railway line was followed to Tarcoola, pass-
ing through Bookaloo, south of Pernatty Lagoon, round Lake Windabout, passed
Bellamy’s Well, north of Lake Hanson, and through Coondambo, Kingoonya, and
Wilgena. We then proceeded west of north for about 80 miles, passing through
Wilgena country out into the unoccupied lands. Turning now north-eastwards,
our route reached to about 100 miles north of Tarcoola, We then turned in a
south-easterly direction, passing through McDouall Peak Station, The Twins,
Mount Eba, Mount Vivian, Parakeelya, and Chance’s Swamp (Roxby Downs)
to Andamooka Station, west of Lake Torrens. We then proceeded southwards
through Arcoona and Yeltacowie to Bookaloo, and thence back to Port Augusta
(see map). The distance thus covered by motor car was, approximately, 736 miles.
I would like here to express our gratitude for many kindnesses received from Mr.
and Mrs. Pick, of Coondambo; Mr. and Mrs. Taylor, of Kingoonya; Mr. and
Mrs. MacBride, of Wilgena; Mr. and Mrs. Jacob, of McDouall Peak; Mr. and
Mrs. Rankine, of Mount Vivian; Mr. and Mrs. Greenfield, of Roxby Downs:
and Mr. and Mrs. Fowlis, of Andamooka.
The object of the expedition was, more particularly, to ascertain the distribu-
tion and abundance of commercial Sandalwood, Eucarya spicata (Fusanus
spicatus), and to try and find specimens of another species, Santalum lanceolatum,
During the journey, notes were made of the botanical features of the country
passed through, and a collection was made of the species of plants seen. Un-
fortunately, the long period of drought had affected the flora very adversely. The
plants thus collected were later submitted for identification or confirmation to
Mr. J. M. Black.
In spite of the weather having been so dry, the number of species noted (and
mostly collected) was 149, with five varieties in addition. Only ten af the species
were introduced. A new species of Swainsona (S. dictyocurpa Black) was found
at Bitter Well, and a new variety of Zygophyllion fruticulosum (var. brevi-
lobatum Black) north-west of Tarcoola. Bergia perenmis is a new record for
South Australia, and Tephrosia sphaerospora had previously been found only
north of Cooper’s Creek, Both species belong, also, to Central Australia.
INFORMATION REGARDING COMMERCIAL SANDALWOOD
(Eucarya spicata, formerly Fusanus Spicatus).
On the route followed, Sandalwood country is entered at about 14 miles
beyond Port Augusta. It may then be met with up to about 53 miles north to
the neighbourhood of Pernatty Lagoon. All the merchantable stems have been
bois Xounghusband
———
L Bagson
Clare
ES
goawler
sourn| ° < it
AUSTRALIA ere
142
“pulled.” Only occasional small or distorted bushes have been left. There seems
to be a very considerable waste of the smaller wood and the branches, which
possibly may be worth collecting for the extraction of the oil. Quite a big pro-
portion of each shrub that had been pulled was discarded.
At 54 miles a special inspection was made of the Sandalwood that had been
pulled. Some dead trees were noticed. In this and in other parts inspected the
Sandalwood has been hard pressed, and many plants have died. During the rabbit
invasion some years ago, when these animals were desperate for food, they
climbed up shrubs which gave them any foothold and sprawled out on the hori-
zontal limbs, nibbling the accessible bark. In many places Sandalwood and some
other bushes have been extensively rabbit-scarred in this way. Then, in addition,
there has been the present prolonged drought, so that Sandalwood bushes, already
handicapped by rabbit injuries, have now. in addition to resist extreme lack of
moisture. This probably accounts for the death of trees, some of which have
only recently died. At Kingoonya, a photograph was taken of such a Sandal-
wood with the lower branches hare and dead as the result of injury by rabbits.
(Plate V., fig. 1.)
At 81 miles from Port Augusta, Sandalwood had recently heen gathered.
In all these cases only the poorer specimens had been left. Sandalwood was again
found east of Lake Hanson, and thence at intervals to East Well Homestead.
Some of the shrubs were well developed—one was found 10 feet high. Here
(near Lake Hanson) two species of Loranthus were found growing on the
Sandalwood.
Between Coondambo and Kingoonya, further Sandalwood was seen, and at
the latter place, quite near the station, a number of bushes were inspected, some
severely injured by rabbits. Here, also, was seen an example of the Bitter Peach
(Eucarya Murrayana or Fusanus persicarius). This patch of Sandalwood is quite
convenient to the station, and might form an admurable plot for observation. The
Sandalwood in general occurs along, or at the foot of, the more sandy ridges in
country containing Myall, Mulga, some Bullock-bush, Bluebush, etc.
Between Kingoonya and Wilgena no Sandalwood was seen. On passing
out from Tarcoola into the Commonage, and passing through this in a north-
westerly direction, only a few Sandalwood bushes were observed. In our course
northwards of Tarcoola, Sandalwood disappeared or was very scanty. It was not
seen on McDouall Peak Station, or thence to Mount Eba, being only encountered
again when Parakeelya Station was entered. Here it grew in abundance, though
some of the best had been pulled. his area was somewhat distant from a rail-
way station.
Sandalwood was met with on the read from Mount Vivian to Parakeelya
Station at about 18 miles, and then 11 miles of Sandalwood country was passed
through. A scale insect was found here, infesting, particularly, Native Peach,
but also Sandalwood. This may be a pest of serious import.
Passing southwards from Parakeelya Station to Arcoona Caves, and thence
eastwards towards Chance’s Lagoon, considerable quantities of Sandalwood had
evidently been pulled, and some shrubs still remained. Large heaps of chips
showed where the branches had been cleaned. Considerable quantities of oil must
surely be present in these chips and the branches that are discarded. Occasional
good trees were seen in this area,
Thereaiter this Sandalwood was not seen again until some 30 or 40 miles
north of Bookaloo.
The general impression we received as regards the Sandalwood is that the
best trees have been removed from the more accessible areas visited by us, and
in some of the more distant ones some of the largest bushes alone had been taken,
143
The Sandalwood is evidently dying out naturally, probably from drought and
rabbits; the number of dead trees indicated this. Such death does not seem
preventable. We saw no evidence of regeneration at all. No seedlings were
noticed, and no half-grown bushes. All were evidently shrubs of many years’
standing, perhaps twenty, thirty, or more years old at least. Rabbits and sheep
probably give seedlings no chance at all, On Parakeelya Station a few seedlings
of Native Peach were seen coming up in other shrubs, so it is possible that the
Sandalwood may occasionally be able to grow from seed in these parts in spite of
stock being present.
The pullers of Sandalwood only select suitable trees. The more twisted ones
are left. It is probable that such trees would supply a sufficiency of seed-bearing
bushes to help to maintain the species. It seems clear, if regeneration is to take
place, that areas will have to be protected against rabbits and sheep or cattle. It
seems important to shut off some small areas for experiment purposes to ascertain
what success may attend the planting of seeds, and doubtless arrangements could
be made at some of the stations for the adequate protection of such small areas.
INFORMATION AS REGARDS SANTALUM LANCEOLATUM.
Plate V., fig. 2, and plate VI.
As the west shore of Lake Torrens was approached a look-out was kept for
this species. At Chance’s Lagoon a small tree with a smooth bark, and very like
a Pittosporum, was seen opposite Mr. Greenfield’s homestead, growing up through
a Mulga. It was in flower, and the flowers were obtained and proved to be this
species,
At Andamooka Station this species was found in considerable numbers as
small, slender, white-stemmed graceful trees, following along the beds of the dry
watercourses, and in general closely resembling the Pittosporum. The trees grow
to perhaps twenty or thirty feet high, and have quite an appreciable bole. ‘They
were found parasitic on the roots of Mulga, being attached by large haustoria
nearly the size of a shilling, presenting a very striking picture. The trees look
as though they could regenerate with ease, and numbers of young seedlings were
seen, Where trees had been cut or pruned by cattle, coppicing tended to occur:
suckering also took place. This species was found usually along the course of
the dry watercourses on Andamooka and Arcoona Stations, or im the tableland
type of country.
It appears that there are several varieties of this species met with in Queens-
land. One growing at Cape York, in the extreme north-east, has becn exported
to China, ‘he one growing in the south-west of Queensland is probably similar
to our South Australian kind. It does not seem to have been demonstrated as
yet that this contains oil in commercial quantities. I have the permission of the
Conservator of Forests to say that the Director of Chemistry, reporting on a
sample of the wood that we had collected, found only 0°22 per cent, of Sandal-
wood oil in it, the ether extract being 1-45 per cent.
PLANTS RECORDED.
(An asterisk denotes an introduced species.)
PrnaceaE.—Callitris glauca R. Br., Native Pine, north of Port Augusta,
near Pernatty Lagoon, The Pines (Arcoona), Parakeelya, Roxby Downs, Anda-
mooka, Arcoona, South Gap.
GRAMINEAE. Andropogon exaltatus R. Br., Scent-grass, dwarfed plants in
“crab-hole,” tableland, Andamooka; Iseilema membranacea (Lindl.) Anderss., in
“crab-hole,” Andamooka; Aristida adscensionis L., in “crab-hole,”’ Andamooka ;
Stipa nitida S. et H., 25 miles north of Pt, Augusta, Bitter Well (Coondambo), Kin-
goonya ; Pappophorum avenaceum Lindl. in “crab-hole,” Andamooka ; Eragrostis
144
setifolia Nees, in “crab-hole,” Andamooka; Glyceria ramigera F. v. M., Cane-
grass, in swampy places on tablelands, etc., almost throughout district; Bromus
arenarius Labill., Sand-brome, 30 miles east of Coondambo; Astrebla pectinata
F. v. M., Mitchell-grass, in “crab-hole,” Andamooka; Dactyloctenium aegyptium
(L.) Willd., in “crab-hole,” Andamooka ; *Bromus unioloides H. B. et K., Prairie-
grass, East Well; *Hordeum murinum L., Barley-grass, East Well,
Lintackar.—Thysanotus, probably T. Baueri R. Br., Bellamy’s Well (Oakden
Hills).
AMARYLLIDACEAE.—Crinum pendunculatum R. Br., Murray Lily, Andamooka.
CASUARINACEAE.—Casuarina lepidophloia F. v. M., Black-oak, scattered
especially on sand-ridges throughout the district (Karawaloo, south of Pernatty
Lagoon, Kingoonya, Arcoona, South Gap).
PRroreacear.—Hakea leucoptera R. Br., Needle-bush, scattered throughout
the district, 80 miles north of Tarcoola, Andamooka, Wilgena, Parakeelya;
Grevillea nematophylla F. v. M., a single plant as a tree at Chance’s Swamp
(Roxby Downs). From 17 miles north-west of Tarcoola to 80 miles north,
occasional shrubs or small trees were probably this species; also on McDouall
Peak Station.
SanTaLAcrar.—Exocarpus aphylla R. Br., north of Port Augusta, near Lake
Hanson, between Kingoonya and Wilgena, The Twins; Eucarya acuminata
(R. Br.) Spr. et Summ., Native Peach, scattered generally; E, Murrayana T. L.
Mitch., Bitter Peach, one tree at Kingoonya; E. spicata (R. Br.) Spr. et Summ.,
generally distributed, except in the north-west part; Santalum lanceolatum R, Br.,
small tree like Pittosporwm phillyreoides, in or near watercourses, chiefly on the
tablelands, Andamooka, Arcoona, Roxby Downs, etc., all west of Lake Torrens.
LoRANTHACEAE.—Loranthus Exocarpi Behr. (apparently) on Pittosporum
phillyreoides, Chance’s Swamp; probably also on Melaleuca pauperiflora, Lake
Windabout, and on M. uncinata, 80 miles north of Tarcoola, though these may
be L miraculosus; L. Murrayi F. v. M. et Vate on Acacia aneura and Eucarya
spicata, Wirraminna; L. gibberulus Tate on Grevillea, probably G. nematophylla,
80 miles north of Tarcoola; L. mtiraculosus Mig. (?, iruit yellow) on Santalum
lanceolatum, Andamooka; L. quandang Lindl., grey mistletoe, common on Myall
(Acacia Sowdenii) almost throughout the district; L. Maidenii Blakely on Acacta
aneura and A. tetragonophylla, Andamooka.
Potyconacrar.—*Emex australis Steink., Wilgena; Muehlenbeckia Cunning-
hamii (Mcisn.) F. v. M., Lignum, often present in swampy patches on the table-
lands, ete.
CHENOPODIACEAE.—Rhagodia spinescens R. Br., east of Wilgena; Cheno-
podium nitrariaceum TF. v. M., in dry “swamps,” Coondambo, north of Tarcvola,
Mount Eba, Parakeelya, Andamooka, *Chenopodium album L., White Gooscfoot,
McDouall Peak, *Ch. murale 1., Nettle-leaved Goosefoot, Arcoona Station ;
Atriplex angulatum Benth., annual saltbush, South Gap; A. velutimellum F. v. M.,
Arcoona Caves (Parakeelya) ; A. vesicarium Howard, Bladder Saltbush, perennial,
south of Bookaloo, Andamooka, east of Wilgena; A. leptocarpum F. v. M.,
Slender-fruited Saltbush, McDouall Peak Station; A. halimoides Lindl., Anda-
mooka, Arcoona; 4. halimoides var. conduplicatum F. v. M, et Tate, Andamooka,
Arcoona; A. spongiosum F. v. M., Hop Saltbush, Bitter Well (Coondambo),
MecDouall Peak Station, cast of Wilgena, Arcoona; Bassia obfquicuspis R. H.
Anders., Coondambo, west of Lake Torrens; B. patenticuspis R. H. Anders.,
Arcoona Caves; Kochia pyramidata Benth., Bore 10 (80 miles north of Tarcoola) ;
K. tomentosa (Mogq.) T’. v. M., Bore 10, 50 miles north of Tarcoola, Coondambo ;
K, sedifolia F. v. M., Bluebush, south of Bookaloo, Wirraminna, Coondambo, east
of Wilgena, 80 miles north of Tarcoola; K, Georgii Diels, south of Bookaloo;
K. aphylla R. Br., Cotton Bush, Andamooka; K. iriptera Benth., 80 miles north of
145
Tarcoola; K. triptera var. ertoclada Benth., north-west of Tarcoola; Salsola Kali
L., Buckbush, Wilgena, north of Port Augusta, north-west of Tarcoola; Enchy-
laena tomentosa R. Br., Ruby Saltbush, Coondambo, 80 miles north of Tarcoola,
Arcoona ; Arthrocnemum leiostachyum (Benth.) Paulsen, Andamooka, Arcoona.
AMARANTACEAE——Trichinium obovatum Gaudich., east of Wilgena; T.
erubescens Mogq., on tablelands, Andamooka.
PHYTOLACCACEAE,—Codonocarpus cotinifolius (Desf.) F. v. M., Native
Poplar.
Pinion titan. Tetraposda eremaea Ostenf., 25 miles north of Port Augusta,
Wilgena ; Gunniopsis quadrifida (F. v. M.) Pax, 65 miles north of Port Augusta,
Andamooka, South Gap.
PorTULACACEAE.—Calandrinia remota J. M. Black, Parakeelya, 80 miles north
of Tarcoola, 50 miles east of Coondambo (probably) ; Anacampseros australiana
J. M. Black, south end of Lake Torrens.
CRUCIFERAE.—Sisymbrium orientale L., Wild Mustard, probably, a starved
form, 25 miles north of Port Augusta; Lepidium oxytrichum Sprague, Bitter Well
(Coondambo), The Twins; Stenopetalum lineare, R, Br., Bitter Well, The Twins;
S. lineare var. canescens Benth., Coondambo.
PirrospoRAcEAE.—Pittosporum phillyreoides D C., occasional trees through-
out the district (north-west of Tarcoola, Andamooka, Mount Vivian, Parakeelya,
Roxby Downs, Courlay’s Lagoon, Andamooka).
LEGUMINOSAE.—Acacia Victoriae Benth., Prickly Acacia, Phillip’s Ponds, The
Twins, Mount Eba, Andamooka, Yeltacowie; A. salicina Lindl, Broughton Willow,
one tree, perhaps this species, with Loranthus quandang on it, on a creek, Arcoona:;
A. ligulata A. Cunn., Umbrella Bush, Andamooka, Parakeelya; A. tetragonophylla
F, v. M., Dead Finish, Lake Windabout, north-west of Tarcoola, McDouall
Peak, Mount Vivian, Courlay’s Lagoon; A, Sowdenii Maiden (plate VII),
Myall, almost throughout the district, except on tablelands: A. Oswaldii F. v. M.,
in flower on Roxby Downs and Andamooka, flowers slightly sweet-scented but
not like wattle-blossom, many flies buzzing round the trees, sometimes growing
into a small tree, Courlay’s Lagoon, near Lake Hanson, near Wilgena, near Tar-
coola; A. tarculensis J. M. Black, Steel Bush, 14 miles east of Wilgena Station,
Tarcoola, 30 miles and 60 miles north-west of Tarcoola; A. aneura F.v. M., Mulga,
almost throughout the district; A. aneura approaching var. latifolia J. M. Black,
80 miles north of Tarcoola; 4. aneura var, latifolia, 80 miles north of Tarcoola,
Courlay’s Lagoon, Kingoonya; A, Burkittii F. v. M., south of Bookaloo, near Lake
Hanson, South Gap; 4. brachystachya Benth., Umbrella Mulga, Bore 10 (80 miles
north of Tarcoola), 17 miles north-west of Tarcoola, Kingoonya, Wirraminna,
and generally scattered throughout the district on sandy rises. A number of
Myall-like trees, some infested with a broad-leafed Loranth, lining a dry creck
on Yeltacowie Station, appeared to be a specics of Acacia, Cassia desolata
I’, v. M., flowers sweet-scented, Andamooka, Arcoona; C. Sturtii R. Br., 25 and
80 miles north of Port Augusta, near Lake Hanson, Parakeelya, 80 miles north
of Tarcoola; C. eremophila A. Cunn. var. platypoda, Benth., 25 miles north of
Port Augusta, 80 miles north of Tareoola; C. artemesioides Gaudich., Wirra-
minna; C. phyllodinea R. Br., 25 miles north of Port Augusta, Wirraminna,
Bore No. 10 (80 miles north of Tarcoola), Parakeelya Station, The Pines, South
Gap; Templetonia egena (F. v. M.) Benth., Broombush, south of Bookaloo, Para-
keelya; Crotalaria dissitifora Benth., on sand ridges, Andamooka; Lotus aus-
tralis var parviflorus Benth., Arcoona Caves (Parakeelya), in “crab-hole,” Anda-
mooka; Tephrosia sphaerospora F. y. M., flowers salmon-yellow, in sandy soil,
Andamooka Station; Swainsona canescens (Benth.) F. vy. M., Bitter Well (Coon-
dambo) ; S. dictyacarpa J. M. Black, a new species of small size, Bitter Well.
GERANIACEAE.—*Erodium cicutarium (L.) L’Her., “geranium,” 25 miles
north of Port Augusta, Bitter Well, in “crab-hole,” on tableland on Andamooka.
146
ZYGOPHYLLACEAR.—WNitraria Schobert L., Nitre-bush; Zygophyllumammo-
philum F. v. M., Arcoona Caves (Parakeelya); Z. fruticulosum DC. var.
eremaeum Diels, south of Bookaloo, north-west of Tarcoola; Z, fruticulosum var.
brevilobum J, M. Black, a new variety, 17 miles north-west of Tarcoola.
EupnorstAcear.——Phyllanthus lacunarius F, v. M., Andamooka; Ph. Fuern-
rohrii ¥, v, M., Andamooka; Euphorbia Drummondti Boiss., in “crab-hole,” table-
land, Andamooka, and 80 miles north of Tarcoola.
SAPINDACEAE.—Heterodendron oleifolium Desf., Bullock-bush, widely scat-
tered throughout the district; Dodonaea attenuata A. Cunn., Bellamy’s Well, Para-
keelya, Courlay’s Lagoon, Andamooka, The Pines, South Gap; D. lobulata
FE. v. M., Andamooka; D. sp. (pinnate leaves), Wirraminna.,
MALVACEAE.—Lavatera plebeja Sims var. eremaca J. M. Black, Arcoona
Caves (Parakeelya Station) ; *Malva sp., Marsh-mallow, McDouall Peak.
ELATINACEAE—Bergia perennis F. v. M. This species and Peplidiwm
Muelleri were found growing together round the edge of the (dry) swamp at
McDowall Peak Station. Both were prostrate herbs, after the fashion of
Euphorbia Drummondii, indistinguishable from each other till dug up and
examined. The deaths of some rams had been attributed to the eating of one
or other of these.
FRANKENIACEAE.—Frankenia serpyllifolia Lindl, on the tablelands, Anda-
mooka, a mass of delicate pinkish flowers.
‘THY MELAEACEAR.—Pimelea microcephala R. Br., climbing up through other
shrubs, north of Port Augusta, near Lake Hanson.
Myrtacear.—Melaleuca halmaturorum F, v. M., Paper-bark Tea-trees round
Chance’s Swamp (Roxby Downs) were probably this species; A. pubescens
Schau., Black Tea-tree, Chance’s Swamp, etc.; Mf. uncinata R. Br., 80 miles north
of Tarcoola, near Uro Bluff, McDouall Peak, Parakeelya; M. pauperiflora
F. v. M., Lake Windabout—Tea-trees with rather papery bark at Lake Wind-
about and at Coondambo Station were probably this species; Eucalyptus micro-
theca F. v, M., Coolabah, Swamp Box, two trees at Chance’s Swamp (Roxby
Downs) ; E. oleosa F. v. M., Red Mallee, a clump 12 miles north-west of Tarcoola ;
E. rostrata Schl., Red Gum, one tree (probably E. rostrata) at McDouall Peak
Station from seed said to have come from Lake Phillipson, one tree at Arcoona
Station, numbers of trees lining creeks between Arcoona and Yeltacowie.
HaALorrHAGIDACEAE.—Myriophyllum verrucosum Lindl., in tank, McDouall
Peak Station.
UMBELLIPERAE.—Daucus glochidiatus (Labill.) Fisch., Mey at Avé-Lall.,
Native Carrot, in ‘‘crab-hole,” Andamooka.
CoNVOLVULACEAE.-—Convalvulus erubescens Sims, The Twins.
LABIATAR.—Teucrium racemosum R. Br., McDouall Peak Station; Pros-
tanthera striatiflora F, v. M., south end of Lake Torrens.
SotawAceaE—Solanum ellipticum R. Br., Coondambo; 7S. sp., no flowers,
no prickles, Coondambo ; Lycium australe FP. v. M., Australian Boxthorn, north
of Port Augusta, near Lake Hanson, Coondambo, Kingoonya, north of Tarcoola ;
Nicotiana glauca Grah., Tobacco Tree, Port Augusta, Phillips Ponds, Yeltacowie;
Duboisia Hopwoodii F. v. M., Pituri, Bellamy’s Well—animals feeding on it on
an empty stomach are said to fall down dead in half an hour.
ScroPHULARIACEAE.—Morgania glabra R. Br., 80 miles north of Tarcoola
{not eaten by rabbits), Arcoona, Andamooka; Peplidtum Muelleri Benth.,
prostrate herb on the edge of a dry swamp, McDouall Peak Station (see under
Bergia perennis, Elatinaceae, re possibly poisonous).
Mvoporaceas.—Myoporum platycarpum R. Br., Bookaloo, Coondambo,
between Kingoonya and Wilgena, north-west of Tarcoola; Eremophia oppositt-
folia R. Br., Andamooka; E. Paisley F. v. M., near Lake Hanson, Wirraminna,
147
between Wilgena and Tarcoola, 80 miles north of Tarcoola, Parakeelya, McDouall
Peak, Roxby Downs; E. Latrobei F. v. M., Wirraminna; E. longifolia (R. Br.)
F. v. M., Wilgena, 50 miles north of Tarcoola, Andamooka; E. rotundtfolia
F, v. M., east of Wilgena, 80 miles north of Tarcoola, between The Twins and
Mount Eba; £. Duttonit F. v. M., Wirraminna, Parakeelya, Mount Vivian, 50
miles north-west of Tarcoola, Mount Eba, Coondambo; E. maculata (Ker.)
I. v, M., Andamooka; E. alternifolia R. Br., Wirraminna, Coondambo; £. glabra
(R. Br.) Ostent., Tar Bush, Coondambo, McDouall Peak, 80 miles north of Tar-
coola; . scoparia (R. Br.) F. v. M., widely scattered, 25 miles north of Port
Augusta, near Lake Hanson, between Kingoonya and Wilgena, near Tarcoola,
Mount Vivian, Parakeelya, Roxby Downs, South Gap.
PLANTAGINACEAE.—Plantago varia R. Br., Coondambo, in ‘“crab-hole” on
Andamooka.
GOODENIACEAE.—Goodenia subintegra F. vy. M., The Twins Station (in the
garden) ; Scaevola spinescens R, Br., 60 miles north of Tarcoola, Andamooka;
S. collaris F. v. M., in saline soil, 17 miles north-west of Tarcoola.
Comrposirak.—Brachycome iberidifolia Benth. var. glandulifera |. M. Black,
sweet-scented, 25 miles north of Port Augusta, Bitter Well (Coondambo) ;
Minuria leptophylla D C., Bellamy’s Well, in “crab-hole” on Andamooka ; Calotis
cymbacantha F. v. M., south of Bookaloo, Bitter Well (Coondambo) ; C. multi-
caulis (Turez) J. M. Black, east of Wilgena; C. hispidula F. v. M., in “crab-
hole” on Andamooka; Senecio brachyglossus F. v. M., in “‘crab-hole” on
Andamooka; Helipterum Fitzgibbonii F. v. M., 80 miles north of Tar-
coola; H. moschatum (A. Cunn.) Benth., Bitter Well, Coondambo; H. Chars-
leyae I’. v. M., Twins Station; [vtolaena leptolepis (ID C.) Benth., in “crab-hole”
on Andamooka; Helichrysum Cassinianum Gaudich., pink bracts, Bitter Well
(Coondambo) ; Podolepis capillaris (Steetz) Diels, north of Port Augusta,
17 miles north-west of Tarcoola, Andamooka; Myriocephalus Stwartu (F. v. M.
et Sond.) Benth., The Pines, Bellamy’s Well (Oakden Hills); Angianthus
pusillus Benth., Bellamy’s Well, Bitter Well (Coondambo) ; Gnephosis cyatho-
pappa Benth., east of Wilgena; *Sonchus oleraceus [.., Sow Thistle, East Well.
DESCRIPTION OF PLATES.
Pate V,
Fig. 1. Commercial Sandalwood suffering in its lower part from injuries caused by rabbits
climbing, in drought time, on the branches and gnawing the bark from their upper aspects.
Kingoonya.
Fig. 2. Typical appearance of Santalum lanceolatum growing as slender, upright trees, usually
near watercourses. Andamooka.
Piate VI.
Fig. 1. Santalum lanceolatum. Andamooka.
Fig. 2. Young Santalum lanceolatum attached by broad haustoria to roots of adjacent mulga
(Acacia aneura). Andamooka.
Priate VII.
Panoramic view showing a remarkably handsome spreading S.A. Myall (Acacia
Sowdenii) in the centre, the more umbrella-like Mulga (Acacia aneura) on the right, and the
intricately-spreading Dead Finish (Acacia tetragonophylla) on the left. East Well, Coondambo.
The Map of Route is by Mr. H. A. Vowels; Photographs by Mr. E. Julius.
148
ON SOME COLEOPTERA FROM NORTHERN AUSTRALIA,
COLLECTED BY DR. H. BASEDOW.
By Artuur M. Lea, F-E.S., Museum Entomologist.
[Read August 14, 1930.]
The South Australian Museum has recently received from Dr, H. Basedow,
some insects he collected when leading expeditions to interior parts of Northern
Australia. The localities are as follows :—
Horse-shoe Bend to MacDonnell Ranges, May-July, 1920 (Commonwealth
Government Medical Relief Expedition).
Petermann Ranges, June, 1926 (First Mackay Exploration Expedition).
Interior Arnhem Land, July, 1928 (Second Mackay Exploration Expe-
dition).
The most interesting capture was a remarkable weevil of a new genus, herein
named Basedowia basicollis.
CICINDELIDAE.
MEGACEPHALA HOoWwITTi Cast. Arnhem Land.
CARABIDAE.
ADOTELA CONCOLOR Cast, MacDonnell Ranges.
CALOSOMA SCHAYERI Er. Arnhem Land, Finke River Valley, Petermann
Ranges.
CARENUM BREVICOLLE SIn. Arnhem Jand.
C. TRANSVERSICOLLE Chd. Petermann Ranges.
CHLAENIUS AUSTRALIS Dej. Finke River Valley, Petermann Ranges.
EurvscaPHus opesus Macl. Finke River Valley, MacDonnell Ranges.
GIGADEMA INTERMEDIUM Gestro, Petermann Ranges.
PutLOSCAPHUS TEPPERI Blackb. Finke River Valley, Petermann Ranges.
PHoRTICOSOMUS BRUNNEUS Blackb. Finke River.
P. cranpis Cast. Arnhem Land, Finke River, Petermann Ranges.
P, HorNI Sin. Arnhem Land.
DY TISCIDAE.
ERETES AUSTRALIS Er. Arnhem Land.
Homoeopytes aTratus Fab. Arnhem Land.
Hyparicus vitratus Fab. MacDonnell Ranges.
RHANTUS PULVEROSUS Steph. MacDonnell Ranges.
GYRINIDAE.
Macrocyrus LATIOR Clark. MacDonnell Ranges.
HYDROPHILIDAE.
HypropHILus ALBIPES Cast. Finke River Valley.
STERNOLOPHUS NITIDULUS Macl. MacDonnell Ranges.
149
SCARABAEIDAE,
BOLBOCERAS CARPENTARIAE Macl. Arnhem Land.
CacocHroa ogscura Blackb. Petermann Ranges.
HAPLONYCHA DECEPTOR Blackb. Petermann Ranges.
H. crirrirai Blackb. Arnhem Land.
HA. trnpaver Lea, Arnhem Land.
Haplonycha rufocastanea, n. Sp.
é. Dark reddish-castaneous, with a bluish iridescence, more distinct on
elytra than elsewhere. Sterna and parts of legs with long reddish-flavous hairs,
upper surface glabrous, elytral fringe extremely short.
Head with crowded punctures, becoming sparse and small in front. Antennae
eight-jointed, first joint longer than the four following combined, second stouter
and slightly longer than third, fourth with one side narrowed to apex, fifth very
short, somewhat produced internally, club with elongate lamellae, each almost as
long as the other joints combined. © Prothorax more than thrice as wide as long,
sides strongly rounded; with numerous rather shallow punctures, about as large
as on head, but much less dense, and becoming rather sparse on sides, Elytra
with sides feebly dilated to beyond the middle; with regular but rather feeble
geminate striae; punctures about as large as on pronotum but sparser. Pygidium
with a feeble median line and with dense and small irregular punctures (almost
shagreened). Second joint of hind tarsi slightly longer than first and the length
of fifth. Length, 17 mm.
Petermann Ranges (unique).
Belongs to Blackburn’s first section of the genus, and of the other species
of that section H. crinita and erythrocephala have conspicuous prothoracic cloth-
ing, H. ruficeps and neglecta are larger and paler, with opaque pronotum, and
A, octoarticulata, to which at first glance it appears to belong, has a conspicuous
elytral fringe; on the type of this species the fringe is so short as to be practically
invisible.
HETERONYX castaNEUS Macl, Finke River.
H. Movesrus Blackb. Finke River.
Hypnorycres MAcuLATUs Blackb. Arnhem Land.
LEPIDIOTA FLAVIPENNIS Lea. Arnhem Land.
ONTHOPHAGUS CONSENTANEUS Har. F inke River, MacDonnell Ranges.
TRrox crorcHi Har. Petermann Ranges.
T. FeNEsTRATUS Har. Arnhem Land.
T. Litrctosus Har. Petermann Ranges.
ELATERIDAE.
AGRYPNUS MASTERSI Macl. Finke River, Petermann Ranges.
Lacon conspicienpus Elst. Finke River,
MACROMALOCERA SINUATICOLLIS Blackb. Arnhem Land.
MALACODERMIDAE.
Larus Mayor Blackb. Finke River.
BOSTRYCHIDAE,
Bostrycnorsis jyesurra Fab. Arnhem Land, Finke River, Petermann
Ranges.
150
TENEBRIONIDAE.
ApELium TRopicuM Blackb. Finke River.
BRISES BLAIR Cart. Arnhem Land.
B. rracuynotowwes Pasc. Petermann Ranges.
CHALCOPTERUS LoNGiUscULUS Blackb. Finke River.
H&LAEUS DERBYENSIS Macl. Petermann Ranges.
H. rncens Blackb. Petermann Ranges.
H. rnrertorts Macl. MacDonnell Ranges.
H. sguamosus Pasc. Finke River.
TIvpAULAX orcus Pase. Arnhem Land, Finke River.
Nycrozor.us approxrmatus Blackb, Arnhem Land, Petermann Ranges.
N. SLOANE! Blackb. Petermann Ranges.
ONOSTERRHUS GRANULATUS Cart. Petermann Ranges.
PTEROMELAEUS ALTERNATUS Pasc. Finke River Valley.
PTEROHELAEUS ARCANUS Pasc.
A specimen from Arnhem Land possibly represents a variety of this species.
It differs from typical specimens in being darker, and by the suture and costae
of elytra being without small shining granules.
Saracus rntricatus Champ. Finke River.
S, rricartNatus Blackb. Arnhem Land.
CURCULIONIDAE.
ACHERRES GRANULATUS Ferg. MacDonnell Ranges, Petermann Ranges.
Basedowia, n. gen.
Head wide. Eyes ovate, lateral, with fine facets. Rostrum very short, upper
surface flattened ; scrobes short, deep, and terminated near eyes. Antennae stout,
scape shorter than funicle, most of the joints of the latter briefly cylindrical, club
subovate. Prothorax in front about as wide as the median length, base more
than twice as wide, with the hind angles produced backwards and embracing
shoulders, ocular lobes wide. Scutellum minute. Elytra widely cordate. Meta-
sternum short, episterna narrow. Abdomen with two basal segments moderately
large. Legs moderately long, front coxae tather widely separated, slightly more
than the middle ones, but less than the hind ones; femora rather stout, unarmed ;
front tibiae denticulate on lower surface, third tarsal joint widely bilobed, claws
equal and close together. Apterous.
The rostrum, antennae, and legs Icave no doubt that this genus is allied to
Polyphrades, but the hind angles of the prothorax acutely produced backwards
and embracing the shoulders, at once distinguish it from all the genera ot the
Leptopsides. The elytra are unusually wide and cordate. The separation of the
front coxae is unusual in the subfamily, but in Mandalotus is of only specific
importance.
Basedowia basicollis, n. sp.
Black. Densely clothed with greyish scales.
Head with minute conecaled punctures. Rostrum much wider than long,
with a feeble median line, front with crowded punctures. Prothorax somewhat
flattened in middle, sides obliquely dilated from apex to near base, and then drawn
acutely backwards, with a feeble median line, with fairly large punctures, crowded
together on sides, but less dense in middle. Elytra not one-fourth longer than
wide, sides strongly rounded; with regular rows of fairly large punctures in
shallow striae, interstices with dense and small punctures. Basal segment of
abdomen slightly longer than second, the latter in middle about as long as third
151
and fourth combined, and slightly longer than fifth. Front tibiae rather long and
denticulate except near base, middle tibiae shorter and with fewer denticles, hind
tibiae unarmed. Length, 6-8 mm.
Arnhem Land (abundant).
All the specimens are badly abraded, but from the scales left it is evident
that in life the insects are densely squamose ; on some specimens from which most
Basedowia basicollis, n. sp.
of the elytral scales are absent an almost regular row of small setae may be seen
on each interstice, but these are normally concealed by scales. The muzzle seems
to have a triangular space on which there are no scales, but it is not a shining
plate as on many species of Polyphrades and Cherrus.
Leprops conrrartus Blackb. Petermann Ranges.
L. purontr Boi., var. 1nTeRiorIs Blackb. Arnhem Land, Finke River,
L. Gravis Blackb. Petermann Ranges,
MYLLOCERUS CINERASCENS Pase. Fetermann Ranges.
ONEsorUS ALBATUS Lea. MacDonnell Ranges, Petermann Ranges.
O, PutLatus Lea, Finke River.
O. TaRsALts Lea. Arnhem Land.
ORTHORHINUS CYLINDRIROSTRIS Fab, Arnhem Land.
POLYPHRADES SATELLES Blackb. Petermann Ranges,
Polyphrades farinosus, n. sp.
Black. Densely clothed with small white scales, interspersed with short
setae; the tibiae with fairly long hairs.
Head with small granules and punctures, longitudinally strigose between eyes.
Rostrum longer than wide, sides incurved to middle, upper surface rather widely |
concave, with a median carina interrupted near apex by a transverse elevation,
but continued beyond it to join a curvilinearly triangular apical plate. Scape not
as long as rostrum, four apical joints of funicle strongly transverse. Prothorax
somewhat flattened, strongly transverse, sides strongly rounded and widest slightly
152
nearer apex than base; densely granulate. Elytra elongate-subcordate, widest at
about basal third, base conjointly arcuate, an obtuse swelling on each side at the
basal fourth, its middle on the fourth interstice, suture subtuberculate at summit
of apical slope; with rows of large punctures in shallow striae, the interstices
multigranulate. Legs moderately long, front tibiae strongly denticulate, the others
less strongly so, Length, 15-17 mm.
Finke River (three specimens).
It is with some doubts that I refer this species to Polyphrades, rather than
to a new genus, but the claws are soldered together to near their tips, and the
general outlines of the elytra are suggestive of P. tumidulus on a greatly enlarged
scalc. The scape is too short for the species to be referred to Cherrus. The head
and rostrum are now almost glabrous, but were probably densely squamose on
fresh specimens. The scales are unusually dense, and appear at first as if mixed
with a whitish meal. Both prothorax and elytra are densely granulate, on the
former the granules are sufficiently large to tise above the clothing, but on the
latter they are too small to be seen before the scales have been abraded.
Polyphrades gibbipennis, n. sp.
Black. Densely clothed with greyish and whitish scales, mixed with numerous
white, depressed sctae.
Ilead with small punctures, base transversely corrugated. Rostrum slightly
longer than its greatest width, transversely impressed at base, punctures normally
concealed, apical plate large, sharply defined and with small punctures. Antennae
moderately long, four apical joints of funicle strongly transverse. Prothorax
strongly transverse, sides dilated from base to near apex and then rapidly
narrowed to apex itself, densely granulate. Elytra at base no wider than base of
prothorax, but sides rather strongly dilated to near the middle, and then strongly
narrowed to tips, which are obtusely conjointly rounded; with rows of large
punctures, appearing smaller through clothing, third interstice conspicuously
elevated on basal fourth only, the adjacent ones also somewhat elevated there,
suture slightly thickened at summit of apical slope. Tibiae denticulate on lower
surface, the front ones more distinctly than the others. Length, 8-10 mm.
Finke River (three specimens).
Allied to P. tumidulus, but differs in having the elevated part of the third
interstice much more pronounced, and the rostral plate much larger (longer than
wide instead of strongly transverse). The elyira are somewhat like those of
P. farinosus on a greatly reduced scale, but thé rostrum is very different. The
elytra are also somewhat like of those of P. crassicornis, but the prothcrax,
rostrum, and antennae are very different. Seen from the side, the base of the
third interstice on each clytron appears as the crest of a distinct hump.
PoLYPHRADES CRASSICORNIS Lea?
A specimen from the Finke River evidently belongs to the same species as
three others from the Daly River, which are probably females of P. crassicornts ;
they differ from the types of that species in having the elytra longer and with
the sides less dilated, and the third interstice on each not elevated near the base,
the prothorax also is less dilated ; but all these differences are possibly sexual only.
PHALIDURA GRANDIS Ferg. Finke River Valley.
ScLERORHINUS CONVEXUS SIn. Arnhem Land, MacDonnell Ranges, Peter-
matin Ranges.
TALAURINUS IMITATOR Blackb, Arnhem Land, MacDonnell Ranges.
T. REGULARIS Sln., var. soLipus Sln. Arnhem Land, MacDonnell Ranges,
Petermann Ranges.
153
Tentegia amplipennis, n. sp.
Black, antennae reddish. Moderately clothed with muddy brown scales and
setae.
Head with large shallow punctures, each containing a stout seta. Rostrum
stout, fecbly curved, with large punctures close together, but not in rows. Antennae
moderately long, two basal joints of funicle about as long as the five following
ones combined. Prothorax moderately transverse, sides strongly rounded and
notched near apex, which is widely produced in middle, with large punctures much
as on rostrum, with a median carina traceable to apex but not to base. Elytra
large, base trisinuate and not as wide as widest part of prothorax, each side of
base with a triangular projection slightly clasping base of prothorax, near base
with a sudden projection supplied with a curved row of subconical granules, the
space there much wider than across prothorax; with rows of large but rather
shallow punctures, becoming deeper on sides, the interstices with distinct but
rather sparse granules, absent from the sides. Mesosternal receptacle rather large,
front edge but slightly incurved. Metasternum and two basal segments of
abdomen with large punctures, those of the second segment of the latter partly
confluent, third and fourth segments very short. Legs long, middle femora rather
strongly dentate near apex, the others unarmed, front tibiae long, the apical half
strongly curved, hind ones very little shorter but almost straight, middle ones much
shorter, third tarsal joint slightly narrower than second. Length, 8-12 mm.
Finke River (Dr. H. Basedow), Batchelor and Darwin (G. F, Hill).
The posthumeral projections on the elytra are somewhat as on T. ingrata,
but the base is very different, and is not, in conjunction with the base of the pro-
thorax, so sculptured as to conceal the middle femora from above, the middle
femora are quite strongly dentate, but the others are edentate, The species is
certainly very different from all other described ones of the genus, and should
perhaps have been made the type of a new one.
The next species, although not taken by Dr. Basedow, is included here, as
belonging to the same genus as T. amplipennis.
Tentegia quinquesinuata, n, sp, *
Black, antennae reddish. Sparsely clothed.
Head with coarse crowded punctures. Rostrum stout, moderately curved,
with coarse, crowded punctures in front, becoming lineate in arrangement between
insertion of antennae and base. First joint of funicle slightly longer than second,
the two about as long as the five following ones combined. Prothorax moderately
transverse, sides strongly rounded, apex less than half the width of base; with
coarse crowded punctures, in places granulate-punctate, with a short median carina.
Elytra closely applied to prothorax, sides dilated just beyond base, and then
rounded to apex, base with five sinuations on upper surface; a wide median
incurvature, and two shorter ones, between the base of the third interstice on each
elytron and the side; with rows of large punctures, the interstices each with a
row of small shining granules, but more conspicuous at the base of the third, fifth,
and seventh interstices than elsewhere. Mesosternal receptacle with rather coarse
punctures, apical incurvature semi-circular. Metasternum very short. Two basal
segments of abdomen with large, deep, irregular punctures, but absent from a
median line on the first segment. Legs rather stout, femora grooved and edentate,
third tarsal joint moderately bilobed. Length, 5 mm.
Queensland: Herberton (H. J. Carter).
Allied to T. spenceri, but smaller, more sparsely clothed, base of elytra
different, and legs shorter and stouter. The base of the head, normally concealed,
is transversely strigose.
F
154
CERAMBYCIDAE.
MICROTRAGUS ARACHNE Pasc. Arnhem Land.
PAcHybDIssus poops Blackb. Petermann Ranges.
ProRACANTHA RECURVA Newm. Finke River, Petermann Ranges.
P, SEMIPUNCTATA Newm. Petermann Ranges.
RiuyTiIPHORA SAUNDERST Pasc. MacDonnell Ranges.
CHRYSOMELIDAE,
CALOMELA PALLIDA Baly. Finke River.
C. waTERHousE!I Baly. Petermann Ranges.
MrGAMERUS FEMORALTS I.ea. MacDonnell Ranges.
Oimes PLANTARUM Blackb. Finke River.
PARoOPsis LATERALIS Blackb. Petermann Ranges.
P. purPuReovirinis Clark. Finke River.
RUWVPARIDA DIDYMA Fab. Finke River.
Tomyris virniputa Er. MacDonnell Ranges.
COCCINELLIDAE,
ALESIA LINEOLA Fab, Finke River.
COCCINELLA ARCUATA Fab. Tinke River.
155
AUSTRALIAN RESUPINATE HYDNACEAE.
By E. M. WAKEFIELD, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, England.
(Communicated by J. B. Cleland, M.D.)
[Read September 11, 1930. ]
Key To THE GENERA,
Acta Karst—Reecptacle resupinate, thin, waxy. Spines slender, subulate,
generally entire, distinct or connate at the base. Spores hyaline. Cystidia
none, Cystidioles (more or less hair-like bodies, possibly sterile basidia)
sometimes present, usually small and thin-walled.
Grandinta Fr—Receptacle resupinate, thin, membranaceous, pelliculose or
crustaceous.’ Tubercles or spines obtuse, or occasionally pointed, entire.
Spores hyaline. or faintly yellowish. Cystidia absent. Cystidioles rarely
present, but little differentiated.
Odontia Fr.—Receptacle resupinate, thin, membranaccous, waxy, crustaceous
or mealy. Spines conical, ciliate or penicillate at the apex. Spores hyaline.
Cystidia present.
Acta Karst.
Acia subceracea Wakef., n. sp.
Effusa, arcte adnata, subceracea, alutacea, margine indeterminato. Aculci
sparsi vel conferti, subulati, ceracei, fulvescentes vel castanei, apicibus pallidiori-
bus. Subiculum alutaceum, tenue, ceraceo-membranaceum. Basidia cylindrico-
clavata, 4-sterigmatica, 12 — 20 * 4 5 ». Sporae ellipticae, hyalinae, uno
latere depressae, 5 — 6 X 2 — 2°5 ». Cystidiola sparsa, interdum rariora,
hyalina, subulata, 45 — 60 * 3 — 5 », ad 40 » emergentia. Hyphae basales dense
intertextae, hyalinae, non nodosae, 2 — 3:5 (— 4) diametro.’
Hab.—Ad lignum cariosum. Mount Lofty, South Australia, Cleland “H”’
(type) ; Mount Lofty, South Australia, Cleland “G”; National Park, South Aus-
tralia, Cleland “I,” “K.”
Allied to Acia uda and A. denticulata, but distinguished from the former by
the strongly projecting, pointed cystidioles, and from both by the absence of any
bright yellow colouring. In structure it is most closely allied to certain Corticia
of the group Ceracea. as Corticium ochracco-fulvwm Bourd. & Galz. A. fitsco-
atra sometimes has similar but much smaller cystidioles, and is darker in colour.
A. subfascicularia Wakef., n. sp.
Effusa, tenuis, arcte adnata, ceracea, e fulvo umbrina. Aculei primo minuti,
fulvo-ochracei, demum majores (ad 0°5 mm. longi) fasciculati, umbrini, apicibus
albidis. Basidia clavata, 20 — 24 * 3 — 4 n, 4-sterigmatica. Sporae hyalinae,
ellipticae, uno latere depressae, polari-guttulatae, 4 — 5°5 & 2— 2-5 w. Hyphae
laxe intertextae, subhymeniales tenuiter tunicatac 2 — 3 p, basales crasse tunicatae
ad 6°5 diametro. Hyphae in aculeis erectae, arcte adhaerentes, saepe crystallorum
circumvestitac, 2 » diametro.
Hab.—Ad corticem. Mount Lofty, South Australia, Cleland ‘“W,” May 5,
1928.
The colour of the young state is nearest to pale tawny-olive of Ridgway’s
Colour Standards; of the mature fungus snuff brown. In general appearance it
resembles brown forms of Acia fusco-atra, but differs in the marked fasciculate
spines, the much looser basal tissuc, and in the abundant deposits of rather large,
irregular crystals in the central tissue of the spines. H. fascicularia B. & C., of
156
North America, has similarly fasciculate spines, and is close to this species in
structure, but differs in the paler colour and much smaller spines.
GRANDINIA Fr.
Grandinia Clelandii Wakef., n. sp.
Effusa, tenuis, arcte adnatd, tomentoso-membranacea, alutacea, granttlis con-
fertis irregularibus concoloribus, ambitu indeterminato, pulverulento. Basidia
clavata vel urniformia, 40 — 50 * 8 — 9 yp, sterigmata 4, 6 » longa. Sporae
ellipticae, hyalinae, 10 — 11 & 8». Hyphae hyalinae, laxe intertextae, septato-
nodosac, 2°5 — 4 » diametro, ramulis erectis saepe apice vesiculoso-inflatis,
Hab.—Ad corticem. New South Wales, Cleland “A,” 1928.
A very distinct species. The colour is uniformly warm buff, and the texture
somewhat loose, giving the plant a pulverulent or tomentose appearance when
viewed with a lens. In section, the most marked character is the abundant
vesicular bodies in which some of the upward-growing hyphae terminate. These
recall the vesicles of Stereum purpureum, and, like those, occur only-in the sub-
hymenial tissue. Both basidia and spores are large for the genus.
G. australis Berk., in Hook. Fl. Tasm., 1860, p. 257.
Syn.: Hydnum pexatum Mass., in Kew Bull., 1901, p. 157.
Irregularly effused, closely adnate, membranaceous, at first alutaceous (deep
chamois) with scattered granules, finally becoming between raw sienna and buck-
thorn brown, very uniform in colour, with crowded granules. The yellowish
pigment is soluble in a solution of potassium hydrate with the production of a
rich vinaceous tint. Margin indeterminate, narrowly byssoid at first, yellowish
or concolorous. Hymenium cracked when dry. Basidia clavate or urniform,
25 X 5 p, with 4 sterigmata 2-~ 5 » long. Spores broadly elliptical, one side
slightly depressed, 6 — 7 (— 9) K 4—5 uy. Cystidioles present, but scattered,
sometimes fusiform, and pointed, at other times scarcely differing from young
basidia, projecting little from the surface of the hymenium, about 30 — 35 X 8 p.
Basal hyphae branched, septate, with clamp-connections 3°5 — 4 ,» in diameter.
Hab—On bark. New South Wales, Cheesman, 1914, and Cleland “B,” 1928;
Victoria, Martin 867 and 1111, 1892; Gippsland, Mar., 1884, on Eucalyplus
obliqua; Tasmania, Cleland “C,” “E,” 1928, Rodway 340 (type of H. pexatum)
and type of G. australis,
This species resembles Odontia Archeri in the vinaceous colour which is
produced when sections are treated with potash, but differs from that species in
its more uniform colour and the absence of vivid yellow tints in the subiculum,
and microscopically in the shape of the spores and the absence of etnbedded
encrusted cystidia.
G. farinacea (Pers.) Bourd. & Galz.
Effused, thin, floccose or softly membranaceous, at first pure white, finally
cream-coloured, margin byssoid or indeterminate. Spines sometimes subulate,
sometimes reduced to granules, very soft and fragile, with projecting sterile
hyphae at the apex. Basidia 6 — 12 — 21 X 3 — 5 yp, with 2 to 4 sterigmata
3 — 4°5 » long. Spores subglobose or ovate, finely asperulate, 3 — 4:5 x 2:5
— 4p. Hyphae thin-walled, with clamp-connections, 1:5 — 4 » in diameter,
sometimes swollen to 7p at the septa.
ffab-—On rotten wood and bark, Kuitpo, South Australia, Cleland “M,”
August 29, 1928; Adelaide, South Australia, Cleland ‘“T,’’ September, 1928.
Easily recognised by the rough spores. A very common European species,
157
OponTIa Fr,
Odontia arguta (Fr.) Quél.
Syn.: Hydnum argutum Fr.
Effused, thin, membranaceous, dry, margin indeterminate, tomentose, whitish.
Hymenium cream to deep ochraceous, with granuliform or subulate spines usually
more or less penicillate at the apex. Basidia clavate, 20 — 30 < 5 p», with 4 sterig-
mata, accompanied by small cystidia or cystidioles of varying form, sometimes
rounded above and excreting a globule of resinous matter, sometimes subulate and
strongly encrusted at the apex. Spores ovate, often one-gutttulate, 5 — 5:5 (— 6)
x4. Hyphae hyaline, with clamp-connections, 2 — 3 » in diameter.
ab.—On bark and dead wood. Pilliga Scrub, New South Wales, Cle-
land “U,” October 15, 1928; Brown’s River, Tasmania, Cleland “F,” January,
1928; National Park, Tasmania, Cleland ‘“P,” January, 1928.
The specimens “F” and “U” show the capitate type of cystidia, while in “P”
the characteristic small encrusted cystidia are present. Typical specimens of
O. arguta from New Zealand are present in the Kew Herbarium.
O. Archeri (Berk.) Wakef., comb. nov.
Syn.: Corticium Archeri Berk., in Fl. Tasm. I1., 1860, p. 260; Kneiffia
Wrightt B. & C., in Journ. Linn. Soc., X., 1869, p. 327; K. chromoplumbea
B. & Br., in Journ. Linn. Soc., XIV., 1873, p. 62; Corticium chrysocreas B. & C.,
in Grevillea, I., 1873, p. 178; Odontia Wrightit (BR. & C.) Burt, in Ann, Mo. Bot.
Gard., XIIL., 1926, p. 270.
Broadly effused, firm, fairly thick, but not waxy, closely adnate, at first
thin, even or more or less papillate, later with distinct spines, becoming much
thicker, and, when dry, often cracked into small areolae. Hymenium variable in
colour, yellow ochre when young and actively growing, but becoming cinnamon-
buff or olive-buff, then avellaneous or wood brown with age. Margin
indeterminate, at first buff-yellow or Empire yellow, later concolorous with the
hymenium, Subiculum similarly bright yellow at first, but in old specimens the
tissue exposed in the cracks often appears white, probably on account of the
abundant excretion of crystals from the tissues.
The structure in section is very characteristic, but can only be observed well
in young specimens. Numerous cystidia are present, both embedded in the tissues
and projecting slightly from the hymenium. These are small, shortly fusiform,
thin-walled and hyaline at first, 18 — 20 x 6—8 yp. Later the embedded cystidia
become strongly encrusted with a deep yellow, apparently resinous excretion,
which is soluble in a solution of potassium hydrate with the production of a
vinaceous tint. It is insoluble in lactic acid, and the structure is best observed
in sections mounted in this medium. The encrusted cystidia eventually occupy
considerable space in the subhymenial tissues, and appear to be vesicular bodies,
as described by Burt for Corticium chrysocreas.
Basidia 15 — 20 & 4-5 p, with 4 sterigmata, 3 » long. Spores hyaline,
elliptical, one side depressed, sometimes 2-guttulate 4-5 — 5 (—6) K 2—2°5 a.
Basal tissue at first somewhat compact, later the hyphae appear to be loosely
interwoven, hyaline, thin-walled 3 — 4 (— 5) » in diameter. The tissue in older
specimens contains much mineral matter in the form of crystals, often forming
masses in the central tissue of the spines.
Hab—On bark. Mount Lofty, South Australia, Cleland “V,’’ May 5, 1928,
and “S,” June 23, 1928; Mosman, Sydney, New South Wales, Cleland “D,”
May 4, 1919; Brown’s River, Tasmania, Cleland “OQ,” January 30, 1928.
158
Known also from Ceylon, Cuba and the United States. A species very
variable in appearance according to age. Young plants are easily recognisable
from their brilliant ycllow tints, but older specimens are best detected roughly
by treating sections with a solution of potash, when there is always an evanescent
vinaceous tinge. The cystidia and spores distinguish it from Grandinia australis.
Corticiwm Archert Berk., as to the type specimen, is an old cracked form, with
now no yellow visible to the eye. Burt has distinguished Odontia Wrighti from
Corticium chrysocreas on the ground that it possesses no vesicles. The type
specimen of O. Wrightii was originally a young, thin specimen with few cystidia.
It has been, at some time, treated with an alcoholic poisoning solution which has
destroyed the yellow colouring matter. Nevertheless, careful examination of
sections shows some trace of the embedded, encrusted bodies having been present,
and the typical thin-walled conical cystidia occur in the hymenium. There are
at Kew recent American specimens which are strongly odontioid in habit, and
at the same time show the internal structure which is typical of “Cortictim
chrysocreas.” As Archeri is the earliest specific epithet so far traced, it has been
adopted for the species.
SPECIES EXCLUDENDAE.
Grandinia glauca Cooke.
This is not a true Grandimia, the spines being fascicles of sterile brownish
hyphae covered with deposits of crystals. The fungus may be placed in the genus
Epithele, At the same time, the structure is so closely allied to that of species of
Grammothele, such as G. grisea B. & C. and G. cineracea Bres., that it is possible
that it may be a state of a species of Grammothele, just as Knetffia grisea belongs
to G. grisea, according to Bresadola. The Australian plant, however, both the
type specimen and a recent collection by Dr. Cleland, shows no trace of the
development of either pores or true hydnoid spines, and is certainly distinct from
G. cineracea in its longer spores, which are cylindric-ellipsoid, one side depressed,
8-9 & 2—2:5 p.
Odontioid forms occur in certain species of Corticinm. Such forms have
been observed in C. lividum, C. bombycinum, and Peniephora setigera from
Australia,
159
THE GEOLOGY OF ORROROO AND DISTRICT.
By Proressor Wacter Howcain, F.G.S
[Read September 11, 1930.]
Prares VIL. anp LX.
The present paper is based on field notes made during various visits to the
district, extending from 1905 to the present year. The exposed rocks belong, in
part, to the Adelaide Series, ranging from the Glen Osmond lower Slates, as the
lowest visible member, and pass up to the lower members of the Purple Slates
Series. The respective series are well defined, agreeing perfectly with the type
district, The most interesting horizon is the Sturtian Tillite, which is present
in the most extensive and impressive development known within the State. The
beds follow in anticlinal and synclinal folds, rising in places to considerable eleva-
tions, and are sometimes truncated by faulting or subaerial erosion, showing very
fine sections. The deformations are chiefly in the form of block faulting and
shatter zones.
The principal localities herein described are :—
; Page
I. Orroroo to Pekina Hill abe S .. 159
Il. Pekina Range and the Black Hill Range .. 160
Ill. Mucra Range .. °.. mi = .. 162
IV. Black Rock Range = ne 24 .. 170
V. The Peaked Hill Range ” ai .. 173
VI. Walloway and Oladdie ate Pe .. 173
I. ORROROO TO PEKINA HILL.
The township of Orroroo is situated on the Tapley’s Hill Banded Slates and
in close proximity to the Brighton Limestone Series. The banded slates have a
hard and siliceous texture with cubical jointing and make excellent building stones,
They can be studied in the Pekina Creek and along the hillsides. General dip,
about 25°-30° E.N.E. The bedding is strongly defined and is sometimes ripple-
marked, A zone of intense crush and acute folding can be seen in the creck near
the township. About a mile from the township, on the main road to Pekina, the
banded slates are seen to dip beneath the limestone series. The latter, in its upper
portion, is a strong, blue, crystalline limestone, intersected with veins of calcite,
and is underlain by the less pure and more siliceous limestones carrying the
peculiar vermiculate-like structures seen on the same horizon to the south of
Adelaide. The beds have a strong exposure of about 200 yards across the strike,
and their purer beds were at one time worked for flux by the Broken Hill Mines
Company. The strike of the limestone is a little to the right of the Pekina Creek,
where it passes under the alluvial cover of the plains on the northern side of the
township. At the quarry it has a dip E.S.E., and is overlain by a quartzite.
The limestone can be easily traced along the strike which crosses the main
road to Pekina, about half a mile to the $.S.E. of Pekina Head Station, situated at
the extreme south-eastern corner of the Hundred of Coomooroo. Near the home-
stead mentioned, a cave exists in the limestone with a perpendicular entrance,
which is said to have been explored for some distance without finding a termina-
tion. The limestone was followed for about two miles. The banded slates, which
160
rise from beneath the latter, occurring with some slight variation as to texture
and dip, are continuous to the Pekina Range. In a small tributary off the main
creek the angle of dip rose to 85°. In the same direction, and within about a
mile of the range, the dip fell to 5°, and for a short distance appeared to be
horizontal. In an approach to the Pekina Range the banded slates give place to
the underlying Sturtian Tillite, which will be described in the next section.
The more recent geological features, in proximity to Orroroo, include
lacustrine deposits laid down in a lake that is now extinct. The sediments line the
SkLoway caces
7 PEAKED HILL
COOMOOROO WALLOWAY : ERSKINE
BLACK ROCK
GRANITE TOP
* HIGH SLATE HILLa
SPRING x,
DEPOT HILL
QUARRY IN BANDED SLATE
BLACK ROCK PLAIN MORGAN
BLACK ROCK RAILWAY STS
SPRINGS \
a
4 MUCRA HILL ecm, ‘
‘o 5
‘
Fig. 1.
Locality Map.
banks of the present Pekina Creek high above the present line of drainage. [See
Howchin, W., Trans. Roy. Soc. 5. Aust., vol. xxxili., 1909, p. 253.]
II. PEKINA RANGE AND THE BLACK HILL RANGE.
(Fig. 2.)
The two ranges run, approximately, parallel to each other. Pekina Range
passes through most of the Hundred of Pekina, in a north-easterly direction,
and ends near Pekina Ilill, the highest point in the range, in the Hundred of
Coomooroo. The line of section taken was from Pekina Hill, following a south-
161
easterly direction through the Black Hill Range to the scarp of the latter, facing
east, at a point about four miles to the southward of Orroroo. The Black Hill
which gives the name to the range, must be distinguished from the Black Rock,
which gives its name to a range on the opposite side of the plain. The section is
in the form of a well-defined geosyncline, [See fig. 2.]
The present section begins where Section I. ended, but at a divergent angle
towards the south-east. In rising to the Pekina Range, a rubbly quartzite was met
with passing into tillite grits, followed by a normal tillite which forms the most
of the range, including Pekina Hill, where the observations were made. The
erratics were not so numerous as seen in some exposures, but one very strongly
striated boulder was obtained.
Moody’s Creek, which takes its rise in the northern portions of the Hundred
of Black Rock Plain, after crossing the south-western angle of the Hundred of
Walloway, makes its junction with the Pekina Creek at the south-eastern angle
of the Hundred of Coomooroo, This creek supplies the best available section
across the strike of the beds, and was, therefore, followed to its head. The
bed of the creek is, mostly, in the Purple Slates Series (having a bluish tinge),
and carrying thin quartzites. The beds roll in a succession of short anti-
clinal and synclinal folds, with the upper limits of the Brighton Limestone exposed
in the nip of the folds. In Section 186 [Hd. of Black Rock Plain] there is a patch
of limestone 80 feet wide, probably brought in by a fold.
PEKINA HILL
BLACK HILL
© irrabera Creek
Moody's Creek
Fig, 2.
Geological Sketch-Section of Geosyncline connecting the Pekina Range and the
Black Hill Ranges. [Six miles.]
(a) Purple Slates Series; (b) Limestone (Brighton Series); (c) Banded Slates (Tapley’s
Hill Series); (d) Sturtian Tillite; (c) Glen Osmond Upper Slates.
The Irrabera Creek takes its rise near the head waters of Moody’s Creek, and
flows in a northerly direction. The Irrabera, in Section 186, exposes the junction
between the Brighton Limestone (which is strongly developed on its western
banks) and the Tapley’s Hill Slates which occupy the eastern banks. Following
an easterly course, the last-named slates form the rise to the Black Hill, which
consists almost entirely of beds of this horizon, ending abruptly in a steep scarp
bordering the plains.
About a mile to the southward of the point reached, at the base of the scarp
(about the dividing line between Sections 182 and 147.£), the tillite is exposed in
the banks of a small creek, giving a section showing the junction of the tillite with
the overlying Tapley’s Hill Banded Slates. The section was covered by the talus
slope [rom the hills, and would not have been seen had it not been for the creek’s
action in eroding the talus. The tillite is evidently exposed at the base of the
range, in places, as by traversing the flats further to the northward, numerous
fragments of the tillite were observed scattered over the paddocks mixed with
other detritus.
162
Ill, THE MUCRA RANGE.
(Figs. 3, 4 and 5.)
The Mucra Range, following a north and south direction, rises gradually
from the plain two miles to the westward of Black Rock Railway Station. Instead
of calling it a “range.” it would be better described as a plateau having a scarp
face towards the east. The ground geologically examined, and now described,
is situated about five miles to the southward of the section shown in fig. 2. It
covers an area of about three miles in an east and west direction, extending from
the alluvium of the plain on the east, to a little beyond Mucra Hill on the west;
and about one and a half miles in a north and south direction. Although of
limited area, it is of more than ordinary interest on account of the deformations
to which the area has been subjected by faulting, crush zones, displacements,
and repetitions of the beds. It is also of interest on account of the exceptional
extent to which the Sturtian Tillite is developed in surface features. The vertical
range in the geological succession is slight, passing up from the slates that underlie
the Glen Osmond-Mitcham Quartzite, to the Tapley’s Hill Banded Slates that
overlie the tillite.
Three creeks intersect the area by which shallow sections of the beds can be
obtained. The Mucra Springs Creek is the most important, and is fed by springs
that have their outlet near the head waters of the stream. The springs have a
constant flow and are incidental to the faulted condition of the ground. Sweet’s
Creek (or Tank Creek) is situated a little to the southward of the Mucra’ Springs
Creck, and unites with the latter at a lower level. his creek is also fed by a
spring. The third creek is McNaughton’s Creek, situated on the northern side
of the Mucra Springs Creek. The three creeks are lost by absorption in the
alluvium of the plain at the base of the range.
Two systems of faulting can be recognised within the area, A major fault
has an east and west direction, while several other faults have a strike north and
south, being, approximately, at right angles to the major east and west fault. The
latter is opposed to the general strike of the beds, and is, therefore, a dip fault
which breaks the continuity of the beds, while those in a north and south direction
form strike faults, which repeat the beds. The prevailing dip is westerly, or
south-westerly, sometimes at a high angle, and is, in a few cases, locally reversed.
In taking a general view of the field, it is seen that ihe great E. and W. dip
fault has thrown the whole field on the northern side of this fault to the eastward,
while several strike faults have repeated the beds, once on the southern side and
twice on the northern side of the main fault. This can be seen in figs. 4 and 5.
There is, therefore, only one main quartzite horizon in the field, split up into four
sections with some secondary occurrences that will be explained later.
The important east-west fault divides the field into two parts, a southern and
a northern section, which require to be considered separately.
Description of the Geological Field.
(A). GEOLOGY OF THE-SOUTHERN SIDE OF THE DIP FAULT.
(a). VTapiey’s HILL SLATE.
The main road between the Black Rock township and Wepowie Creek
passes over a col in the range, a little to the southward of Mucra Hill. The
country between the latter and Wepowle Creck is level and cultivated. the surface
soil being derived from the decomposition of the Tapley’s Hill Slates which overlie
the tillite and form the highest geological horizon within the area under considera-
tion. The slates arc well exposed along the banks of the creek above mentioned,
passing up into the Brighton Limestone.
ee
V3
K
HA
Banded Slates ( Glen Osmond
(Tapley's Hill Series) Upper Slates
Glen Osmond Glen Osmond + The “Sugar Loaf’
Quartzite Lower Slates
Fig, 3.
Geological Sketch-Plan of Mucra Springs Reduced Scarp.
[The line of No. 1 Section should have been drawn a little further to the northward than
that shown on the Map, as seen in fig. 4.]
164
(bo). SvurTIAN TILLITE,
To reach Mucra Hill, the Wepowie road is followed to the top of the rise
and, at a five-road junction, the north road is taken, followed by the first turn
to the east to Mr. MacMahon’s homestead in Section 19, Hd. of Black Rock Plain.
Near the residence mentioned, a hill, situated in a gap of the range, shows
prominent exposures of tillite in a line of outcrop that is continued to Mucra Hill
(a trig. station) with fine exposures of a typical kind, which, by the eye, can
apparently be traced for miles in a northerly direction. The tillite has a great
spread to the eastward, reaching to the wire fence that follows the edge of the
plateau, having a width of a little over half a mile.
The ground is more or less under cultivation, with ridges of the tillite rising
in places and patches, some of them several acres in extent, so thickly strewn with
erratics as to make ploughing impossible. The erratics reach a size up to six feet
in length, too heavy to shift, but near the boundary, at the edge of the plateau,
some have been dragged to the fence. Near the centre of the ground there is a
ridge of tillite with an apparent dip to the north-west at 70°. The base of the
tillite, on the southern side of the main east-west fault, is near the edge of the
plateau, on the eastern side of the boundary fence, where a small quartzite occurs.
This latter may prove to be either the upper limits of the underlying slate, or a
lenticle in the tillite, near its base. Not much attention was devoted to the erratics,
but those seen were mostly quartzites and included some porphyries; one limestone
boulder was recognised, granite erratics were apparently rare.
(c}). SLATES BENEATH THE TILLITE (= GLEN Osmonp‘) Upper Srares).
The ground falls rapidly from the edge of the plateau towards the east,
forming an exposure of the Glen Osmond Upper Slates in a thickness of about
150 feet. These slates have a laminated structure and a bluish-black colour.
Dip, W. 20° N. at 60°.
(d). Tue Quartzire (= GLEN Osmonp Quarrzire).
The slope of the ground from the edge of the plateau, cutting the basset
edges of the slates, just described, becomes arrested by the presence of a strong
quartzite which rises above the normal level in a very broken ridge, having a
strike, approximately, north and south. The outcrop is very sharply truncated
by the east-west fault, showing a bold scarp to the headwaters of the Springs
Creek, 100 feet in height, with the faulted tillitc transverse to its base.
All the main quartzites within the area are of precisely similar type—fine-
grained, mottled, and extremely brittle, The latter feature is no doubt the effect
produced by the powerful earth movements which have occurred within the area.
The stone splits freely under the hammer, fracturing in all directions with many
smooth and slickensided faces. The evidences of fracture, from crush, can be
seen in the general rock structure by groups of cracks and open spaces in the
main portions of the stone. This brittleness is especially seen in the great
isolated monolith that goes by the name of the “sugarloaf,” to be described later.
(e). SLATES BELOW THE QuaRTzITE (— GLEN Osmonp Lower SLaTEs).
These slates follow in regular order below the quartzite. They can be dis-
tinguished from those above the quartzite by the occurrence within their limits
@) In the type district, the quartzite, with its attendant upper and lower slates, occurs
both at Glen Osmond and Mitcham, forming two anticlines, separated by a syncline by
which the quartzite dips below the surface, to reappear in a return fold at Mitcham, so
that the beds in these contiguous localities are on the same geological horizon.
165
of calcareous zones that carry more or less cherty nodules and layers. This is a
well-marked feature of the beds as developed near Adelaide, and is distinguished
as the “blue-metal” limestone. Its occurrence in the present section is a good
guide to the particular horizon represented. Further references to the subject will
be found below.
The slates just defined are determined by a strike fault with a north and
south direction, which had the effect of repeating the beds, as described in the next
paragraph,
Repetition of the Beds (Southern Side),
(Fig. 4.)
(1). Faulted Upper Slates.—The strike fault mentioned in the preceding
paragraph had the effect of a down-throw by which the slates above the quartzite,
as well as the quartzite itself, were once more brought within the limits of the
section, and the upper slates were placed unconformably against the lower slates.
(2). Faulted Quartzite—This outcrop of the main quartzite makes a very
strong and high ridge with a strike roughly accordant with the one to the west-
ward, of which it is a repetition. On the northern side it is cut by the great fault
that runs in a line with the Springs Creek, and to the southward its elevated out-
line can be traced by the eye as extending for several miles.
Fig. 4.
Geological Sketch-Section, No. 1, of the Mucra Springs Area.
Southern side of the main East-West Fault. [One and a halt miles. ]
(c) Banded Slates (Tapley’s Hill Series); (d) Sturtian Tillite; (eg) Glen Osmond Upper
Slates; (f) Glen Osmond Quartzite; (g) Glen Osmond Lower Slates; (4) Alluvium of
the Plain,
In the dislocation and sheering to which these rocks were subjected, the
quartzite on the westward side, near the fault plane, was broken, carried forward,
and left out of alignment with the main mass. There are two such isolated frag-
ments. One of these is situated on the right bank of the Springs Creek, about
mid-distance between the two main outcrops and is locally known as the “sugar-
loaf.” It is a very remarkable object—an isolated monolith, in angular outline,
vertical walls, and considerable elevation, covering an acre of ground. It appears
to have been severed from its bed in the western outcrop, dragged along the fault
plane, and left stranded in its isolated position, A trail of broken and mashed
rocks can be traced from the base of this castle-like rock in a south-easterly
direction.
The other illustration of these isolated fragments occurs on the western side
of the eastern outcrop of quartzite and runs parallel with the latter. [See figs. 3
and 4.] It is separated from the main quartzite by about 100 yards, and is almost,
at its thickest part, a rival in size to the latter. It is lenticular in outline, with a
length of about 20 chains, attenuated at cither end by decreasing thickness and
brecciated rock material, running out before reaching the Springs Creek, on the
northern side, and a small ercek on the southern. It appears to owe its origin to
a secondary strike fault which has duplicated the quartzite at close quarters and,
for a limited length, in lenticular form.
166
The southern extremity. of this lenticular quartzite reaches the northern
branch of Sweet’s Creek, and a few broken and mashed stones can be traced across
the creek, where it ends. About 100 yards further up the creek from this point
there is a break in the slates; the dip, which is normally south-westerly to west, is
changed to the south-east, and a little higher up it is reversed to the west-north-
west at 55°. This probably represents the position of one of the strike faults that
has repeated the beds.
(3). Faulted Lower Slates—These beds are conformable with the main
quartzite outcrop under which they dip, and with which they are united im one
and the same faulted block. They also include the “blue-metal” limestone and
cherts proper to this bed. The slates follow the slope of the ground, and are
ultimately obscured by the alluvium of the plains.
(B). GEOLOGY OF THE NORTHERN SIDE OF THE DIP PAULT.
(Figs. 3 and 5.)
The geological features on the northern side of the great dip-fault are more
varied and complex than those on the southern side of this fault, involving a great
throw to the eastward and a more extended repetition of the beds.
MUCRA HILL
mater?
Wis
Fig 5,
Geological Sketch-Section, No. 2, of the Mucra Springs Area.
The Section cuts the main East-West Fault obliquely. [One and a half miles.]
(c) Banded Slates (Tapley’s Till Series) ; (d) Sturtian Tillite; (¢) Glen Osmond Upper Slates ;
(f#) Glen Osmond Quartzite; (y) Glen Osmond Lower Slates.
(a). FauLttep TILiire (Upper Exposure).
The fault, above mentioned, enters the valley where the central stream of
the Springs Creek takes its rise, and for some distance the creek follows closely
the line of faulting. At the head waters the division between the slates, on the
right bank of the creek, and the tillite, on the left bank, is quite sharp. On the
bank side, not far from the fault plane, a large quartzite erratic is set in the
tillite, which measures 5 feet 6 inches by 3 feet 6 inches by 3 feet 6 inches. The
main body of the tillite is thrown about 25 chains to the eastward of its former
boundary—that is, to about mid distance between the truncated quartzite and the
“sugarloaf” that are situated on the other side of the fault plane. It is here ended
by a strike-fault having a direction a little east of north. The fault plane carries
much quartz, a quantity of micaceous iron and fault-rock that is dark-coloured
and very siliceous, passing to chert in places, This north-south fault crosses the
creck to the southern bank; the hard siliceous rock (forming the crush-rock of
the fault plane), by its superior resistance to stream crosion, forms a waterfall,
about six fect in height, while the fault dies out, apparently, against the east-west
dip-fault on the southern side.
167
(b). SLATES BENEATH THE TILLITE.
These are well exposed in the creek below the waterfall caused by the north-
south fault. They show smooth bedding planes with a dip at 45°, and are situated
a little above the “sugarloaf.” Just below the latter, in the creek, the slates are
much disturbed and mashed, having a dip of 65° to the west. On the right bank
there is an old washout that has heen filled with layers of sediment that have
undergone induration so as to resemble older rocks, and, at first sight, might be
regarded as an overthrust on the slates. At one spot, slates and thin quartzites
are in vertical position with a strike nearly north and south, being divergent from
the normal, north-west.
The position of these slates—between the tillite and the quartzite—suggests
that they represent the Glen Osmond Upper Slates, but the evidences of faulting
at the eastern margin of the tillite, and, probably, near the “sugarloaf.” prove
considerable disturbances that are difficult to define.
(c). Tue NorrtHern Vauttep Quartrzite, No. 1.
The quartzites at the “Springs” are of peculiar interest. In a casual observa-
tion the quartzite on the southern side appears to cross the creek and ascend the
hil! on the northern side, but this is not the case. The respective outcrops
certainly represent the same geological horizon but, stratigraphically, they are a
long way out of alignment with each other. The east-west dip fault divides them.
The true alignment of the northern ridge of quartzite is not with the quartzite
that faces it on the opposite side of the creek, but with the truncated limb that
appears on the southern side of the fault a quarter of a mile higher up the stream.
The strike of the two beds of quartzite at the ‘‘Springs’’ is not exactly coincident,
as the northern branch meets the creek about the thickness of its own diameter
(50 feet) to the eastward of the southern branch, The northern line of exposure
follows a strike to the north-west, curving round, and crosses McNaughton’s
Creek, about half a mile distant.
There appears to be a chain of springs in the bed of the creek, the most
important being the one marked on the map near the junction of the two opposed
quartzites, where the remains of a drinking trough can be seen. The locality is
very much disturbed. Near the fault, in the creck and on the sides of the hill,
the quartzites are reduced to a crush-breccia, the same features extending in a
south-westerly direction, taking in the trails associated with the isolated frag-
ments of the “lenticle’” and “‘sugarloaf” described above.
(d). SLATES BETWEEN THE QUARTZITE AND Lower TILLITE.
In a normal succession (with a westerly dip) the slates, as underlying the
quartzite, may be regarded as the equivalent of the Glen Osmond I.ower Slates.
‘he beds, which have an exposure of about 250 yards, are much disturbed and
broken, mostly pitched at a high angle, sometimes vertical, or even reversed, with
a strike directed east and west, and a dip, south. In this disturbed area, one
large picce of slate was secn to be strongly grooved and slickensided. The slates
are separated from the underlying tillite by a fault plane, and there is some reason
to think that the tillite overrides the slates. The line of fault is marked by the
presence of ironstone, with a strike N.W. and S.E.. and can be traced for a
considerable distance.
(ce). Vauttep Titiite (lower Exposure).
The position of the repeated tillite in the section gives evidence of a very
considerable downthrow on the eastern side of the fault. In the normal order
of succession the Tapley’s Hill Banded Slates should rest on the tillite, but instead
168
of this the Glen Osmond Lower Slates have that position, while the Glen Osmond
Quartzite and Upper Slates are cut out, but reappear in their normal position later
in the section (see fig. 5).
‘The tillite has a surface exposure of about 500 yards across the strike. In its
basal portion it is dark-coloured and siliceous, but throughout the greater portion
it is buff-coloured, in which the darker coloured erratics, worn down by the
stream action to a level, show out very conspicuously against the lighter coloured
matrix. At about half distance along the surface a boulder, fixed in the tillile,
measures 6 feet by 4 feet, consisting of reddish, siliceous, quartzite, much veined
with quartz and, in places, showing false-bedding. ‘The tilhte is limited on its
southern side by faulting, but, on the northern, extends in that direction to, at
least, McNaughton’s Creek. Taking in the faulted portions, the tillite has a
spread across the strike of a mile and a half, one of the largest areas for this
particular rock within the State.
(f). SLATES BELOW THE TILLITE,
Rising from beneath the tillite are bluish and dark-coloured slates with a
dip S.W. at 50°. They correspond to the Glen Osmond Upper Slates, and have
am exposure of about 250 yards.
(g). NorrueRN FAauLtep QuartziTe, No. 2.
In descending order from the last-named slates, is a repetition of the same
quartzite that outcrops higher up the valley. Its position can be fixed in Sec-
tion 132, just above the junction of a tributary on the right bank, which has a
course almost parallel with the main stream. The quartzite strikes the creek
tangentially, and from its being partially on its strike gives a section 160 yards
in length, The dip is W.S.W. at 15°, with a N.W. strike. The outcrop forms
a ridge which is directed towards the main range about a mile distant. It is not
seen outside the creek on the right bank, as on that side the alluvium of the plain
obscures outcrops. The lithological features of the quartzite are exactly similar
to those already described with reference to other exposures of the same rock.
(h). SLATES BELOW THE TAULTED QuARTZITE, No. 2,
Rising from beneath the quartzite (just described), in Section 132, near the
north-eastern angle of Section 149&, are slates corresponding to the Tower Glen
Osmond horizon. They can be seen in the creek bed, for about 100 yards, with
a dip S.W. at 40°, They are much weathered and bleached, as they form the
margin of the older rocks as the latter disappear under the alluvium of the plain.
McNaughton’s Creek.
This creek has a parallel direction with the Mucra Springs Creck, situated on
its northern side, and at a distance of about half a mile. The tillite which is seen
in the head waters of the Mucra Springs Creek (on the western side of the north
and south fault) continues to McNaughton’s Creek, in its upper reaches, Dip of
beds, 5.S.W. at 45°, The boundary fault on the eastern limits of the tillite, also
goes through to McNaughton’s Creek, on the same line of strike. The fault
zone is marked by ferruginous quartzite and ironstone, which has an apparent
dip to N.E, at 75°. Just below the fault plane, blue slates show in the creek with
a dip S.W. at 40°. ‘The thick quartzite, in its eastern throw, follows the ridge
from the Springs, crosses the creek and makes a prominent feature on the north-
western side of the creek, having a dip S.W. at 36°. Then follows a thick blue
slate with thin beds of quartzite, dip S.W. at 35°; under which rises another thick
169
quartzite, and this again underlain by more blue shale which continues to a junc-
tion with the tillite in its second or eastern occurrence. The latter is a quarter mile
in breadth and continues northward to McNaughton’s boundary fence, indicated
on the map by the public road. ‘The tillite is underlain by laminated slates, dipping
S.W. at 60°, and these again underlain by quartzite.
Sweet’s Spring Creek (or Tank Creek).
(So named from a stone tank that was formerly supplied by means of a
pipe led from a spring higher up.) The Creek is situated nearly half a mile to
the southward of the Mucra Springs Creek, with which it unites at a lower level.
Rising to the foothills are outcrops of slate and buff-coloured limestones with
chert, up to six inches in diameter. A ferruginous quartzite outcrops on a low
hill with dip W. 20° N. at 60°. In a small creek, behind the ruins of Sweet’s
house, slates strike 5. 20° W. in vertical position, or slightly to the west. Two
hundred yards above the first outcrops in the creek there is a crush-rock, 42 yards
wide, in the creck. It shows no regular bedding, Parallel lines may be recognised
in short distances, but the great mass of the rock is shattered. A break of
50 yards occurs in which no rocks are seen, following which are slates, showing a
small fault plane in beds much broken and penetrated by small quartz and mineral
veins. Anticlinal folding gives reversed dips E.N.E. and W.S.W. Small water-
falls occur in the creek, above which is a quartz reef, 4 feet 6 inches in thickness,
penetrating slates with Fe,O,. A little higher up, close to the road leading to the
Spring, the slates have a dip W. at 45°, which increases to 64° in the direction
W. 20° N., becoming vertical and reversed near the Spring. The water issues
at the junction of the slates with thin quartzites, the latter having a dip W. at 80°.
These quartzites are followed, in ascending order, by slates and buff-coloured
dolomitic limestones which are seen on the rise to the plateau, with an important
quartzite 60 feet thick near the crest.
Section Taken Along the Old Post and Wire Fence.
A fourth traverse of the range was made by following the “post and wire
fence,” marked on the map, that passes up from the township to the Mucra
Plateau. The route was parallel to those already described, and half a mile to
the southward of Sweet’s Spring Creek. Some fragments of chert were observed
on ploughed land in a paddock before reaching the stony rise. Near the dividing
line between Sections 131s and 149 a mallee scrub marks the first rise in the
foothills. Here the first exposure of rock is seen as decomposed laminated slate
(or shale), carrying bands of black chert in situ, evidently the parent rock from
which the distributed fragments met with at a lower level were derived.
Higher up, near the top of the next ridge in the foothills, a number of pros-
pector’s holes in the slate afforded some evidences. They showed the slates to be
very fissile and split with smooth faces. In the excavation the dip showed W, at
50°. Further on, the dip changed a little to the north of west, and at a higher
angle—in places, apparently, vertical. At some horizons calcareous zones
occurred.
No alteration of geological features occurred till the path cut through the
first high ridge with a quartzite, about 50 feet in thickness. This quartzite is the
same as the quartzite cut in the Mucra Creek section by the east-west fault at
the “Springs.”
Superior to the quartzite, last mentioned, there are more laminated slates
(or shales) and on the rise towards the watershed marked calcareous horizons are
scen in the slates forming an earthy-bluish-impure limestone, divided up into layers
about six to twelve inches each; some of a blackish colour similar to that of the
170
“blue-metal limestone” near Adelaide, which occurs there in the slates between
the Thick Quartzite [Black Hill and Stonyfell| and the Glen Osmond Quartzite.
Near the summit of the scarp, forming the water-parting, there is another
important quartzite which forms the southerly extension of the quartzite which
is truncated by the east-west fault at the head of the Mucra Springs Creek. Rest-
ing ou this quartzite is a flaky slate, about 50 feet in thickness, which separates
the quartzite from the tillite that immediately succeeds it in position. The bed
correspgnds to a similar one that separates the quartzite from the tillite as
described above in its northern extension.
IV. THE BLACK ROCK RANGE,
(Fig. 6, pl. viti., and pl. ix., fig. 1.)
This range, situated 168 miles to the northward of Adelaide, and about four
miles in length, is the most conspicuous highland for many miles around, rising
steeply from the level of the plain. The sky-line of the range forms a jagged
contour arising from the differential weathering of its geological elements, as
well as the block-faulting to which the range has been subjected. The beds are
included in the Adelaide Series, and the vertical succession extends from the
Glen Osmond-Mitcham Lower Slates to the Tapley’s Hill Slates, with the inter-
BLACK ROCK DEPOT HILL
GRANITE TOP HIGH SLATE HILL
Fig. 6,
Geological Sketch-Section of the Black Rock Range. [6 miles.]
(c) Banded Slates (Tapley’s Hill Series); (d) Sturtian Tillite; (¢) Glen Osmond
Upper Slates; (f) Glen Osmond Quartzite; (gy) Glen Osmond Lower Slates.
mediate horizons of the Gleh Osmond-Miicham Quartzite, the Glen Osmond Upper
Slates, and the Sturtian Tillite. hese will be considered in their ascending order.
(a). Brack Rocr.
Horizon: T.ower Slates of the Glen Osmond-Mitcham Series.‘)
The Black Rock, the highest point of the range, has a trig. cairn on its sum-
mit with the official record of 2,800 [eet above sea level. It is situated a little
over 11 miles, in a direct line eastward, from the township of Orroroo, and rather
less than that from the Black Rock Railway Station. The base of the hill is
estimated to be 1,680 fect above sea level, giving the hcight of the hill, from its
base, as 1,120 feet.
The most accessible path by which to reach the height is on the southern side
of the hill, wp what is known as the Granite Creek (to be referred to presenily)
~—a side that has been thickly covered with sheoak trees, but which are now nearly
all dead from the effects of the parasitic plant, Loranthus.
©) The so-called “slates” of the Adelaide Series might often be better designated
shales, as they frequently show a fine lamination and split on the bedding planes. The
same beds, in other situations, develop a coarse cleavage and split more readily at an
angle to the bedding. As it would be inconvenient to call the same bed in one place a
shale and in another a slate, it is better to adopt a single term, although the particular bed
might be more appropriately called a shale.
171
Black Rock is shown on the map of the Hundred of Erskine, placed on the
northern boundary of Section 24. It is composed of a very compact slate, of a
dark-bluish colour, finely laminated and very uniform. The bedding is marked
by numerous very regular and parallel lincs, strongly coherent but at intervals
fissile by which the rock is divided into flags, a few inches in thickness, and is
sometimes massive. On the southern side of the hill the beds show a dip slope of
about 40° in a westerly or south-westerly direction, decreasing im the angle of dip
towards the summit. At the crest, the rock, bared to the weather, has developed
a rough kind of cleavage at a high angle, not seen in less weathered portions of
the rock. At first sight this might be taken as a change in the angle of dip, but
careful observation shows the bedding lines as transverse to the cleavage planes.
The northern face of the hill is a very pronounced fault scarp, very steep,
with a ledge a short distance down from the crest, and a raised broken ground at
the base, several hundred feet below. The bed of quartzite, which caps Granite
Top, on the southern side, although absent from the crest of the Black Rock, is
seen on the faulted segment, having been thrown down in conjunction with the
underlying slate.
(6). GRanire Top.
Horizon: Glen Osmond-Mitcham Quartzite.
A very strong and siliceous quartzite overlies the Black Rock Slates, and in
consequence of an eroded gap in the slates causes the quartzite to take the form
of a lofty and scarped face not much below the height of Black Rock. The popular
name of “Granite Top,” although a misnomer, as there is nothing of granite about
it, has become stereotyped by the name having been placed on the Government
Map, in Section 24, Hundred of Erskine. Its striking prominence is due to its
resistance to weathering, coupled with the stream action of the Granite Creck,
which takes its rise on the south-eastern flanks of Black Rock, having cut a gap
between the quartzite and the slates near the summit, and then cutting through the
quartzite at a lower level, hy which the latter caps the valley on both sides, the
dip slope giving a reduced height on the western side.
The quartzite is a light-coloured, siliceous, and piebald stone by the presence
of small flakes of white felspar, a very characteristic feature of the Mitcham
Quartzite. The original quartz grains, by metamorphic action, have been blended
and fortified by introduced silica in optical continuity that approaches the struc-
ture of a quartz-rock. The rock is massive and has a slight tendency to spheroidal
fracture. The thickness of the bed is estimated at about 60 feet, but this is
uncertain, as the base of the bed is obscured by talus. ‘The bed has a slight pitch
downwards as it passes under the overlying slates of the “High Slate Hill” at the
level of the road and creek [see pl. ix., fig. 1].
(ce). Hien State Hint,
Horizon: Upper Slates of the Glen Osmond-Mitcham Series.
This hill, shown on the map as situated in Section 7n~ (Hd. of Erskine), is
in a direct line with Black Rock and Granite Top, following a south-westerly
direction. It is an isolated, pyramidal hill, about 600 feet in height, with steep
faces on all sides, especially on the north side which shows the basset edges of
the slate rock.
On the descent from the Black Rock, a course was shaped around the eastern’
base of the hill to its southern side. The beds show the same features of an
earthy slate as seen in the corresponding horizon in the type district. The steep-
ness of the hill on its southern face is caused by the great downthrow of the
glacial beds on that side, the fault having carried down the underlying slates with
the tillite, making an unconformable junction between the two.
172
(d). Stuart’s Looxour anp Drror.
Horizon: The Sturtian Tillite.
The site is marked on the official map as “Depot Hill” [Sec. 135, Hd. of
Morgan]. The local statement is that it formed a camping ground and lookout
for the explorer, J. McDouall Stuart. It is probably correct, but the latter begins
his “Journal” from a position further north, The site forms a narrow valley at
the head of which are two peaks, the higher one known as the “Lookout,” and
the other, which is slightly lower, as the “Depot Hill.” Near the head of the
valley is a permanent spring of good water which it is assumed formed the camp-
ing place.
There is an extraordinary development of the tillite in the north-western
portion of the Hundred of Morgan. ‘The beds are exposed on the western
boundary of the Hundred in Sections 101N and 101s, and continue in a gradually
rising range (or spur) for a distance of six miles, reaching a maximum height in
the Depdt and Lookout peaks [see pl. viii., figs. 1 and 2]. Towards the head of the
valley (in the neighbourhood of the spring) the outcrops are very massive and
rugged, rising to a height of about 500 feet, formed of tillite throughout. The
erratics are numerous, mostly sharply angular, and were observed up to two feet
in diameter. They consist mostly of quartzite, with a good number of granites,
metamorphic rocks, basic igneous rocks, and one limestone example was seen.
Near the head of the valley the tillite extended up the south-eastern elevation,
as well as on the north-western, passing under kaolinized slates. The:line of'
junction between these two beds crosses the valley diagonally, passing over to the
north-western side.
On rising to the crest of the Depot Ilill, it was seen that the range on its
north-western side was bounded by an almost vertical scarp caused by a down-
throw on that side comprising some hundreds of feet. This broken segment
extends northwards to the limits of the High Slate Hill, as stated above, having
a length co-extensive with the range (six miles or more), and a breadth, reaching
the southern flanks of the High Slate Hill, of one and a half miles, the most
extensive exposure of the Sturtian Tillite, in one mass, known within the State.
(e). Posr GiactaL SLATEs,
Horizon; Tapley’s Hill Banded Slates.
About three miles to the south-westward of the Depot Hill, on the flanks of
the tillite spur, a quarry has been worked in the overlying slates by Mr. Lloyd
Haynes, on his farm in Section 121, near its northern boundary. The quarry
is in kaolinized banded slates, having a dip E.S.E. at 35°. The rock splits easily
on the bedding planes and shows ripple marks on some faces. The tillite is
exposed on the rise behind the quarry. At about 100 yards in the direction of
the dip a quartzite a few fect in thickness is included in the slate, and froim its
superior hardness forms a slight elevation in the contour. With a change in the
geological nature of the country the surface, to the southward, assumes a flat and
featureless aspect.
It appears that the Depdt spur is really a faulted block as distinct from the
main range, the latter having a dip to the west or south-west, while the Depot
‘spur shows a dip to the E.S.E., the result of the great downthrow being to give
the spur a tilt to the eastward.
The tillite dips under the alluvium on the eastern side of the Orroroo plains,
and reappears at the base of the ranges on the western, as described above, in a
distance of six miles.
173
V. THE PEAKED HILL RANGE.
(Fig. 7, and pl. ix., fig. 2.)
The Peaked Hill takes its name from its shape, rising on all sides to a central
peak. It is a conspicuous object when viewed across the plain from Orroroo,’ a
distance of eight miles in a straight line, and is about the same distance from the
Depot Hill in a north-westerly direction. Its position on the map is close to the
western boundary of the Hundred of Erskine, Section 69, and about mid-distance
between the northern and southern limits of the Hundred [pl. ix., fig. 2].
The beds exposed, in ascending order, are: (e) the Glen Osmond Upper
Slates; (d) the Sturtian Tillite, which takes in most of the hill, divided by a
quartzitic zone into two sections; and (c) the Tapley’s Hill Banded Slates, which
pass into low ground. The hill owes its prominence entirely to the presence of
the tillite and quartzites which possess greater resistance to weathering than the
associated slates. The dip is northerly, and, as this is opposed to the dip of the
Black Rock Range, it probably forms part of an anticlinal fold of which the
respective prominences are the complementary curves.
Fig, 7.
Geological Sketch-Section of the Peaked Hill.
‘(c) Banded Slates (Tapley’s Hill Series); (d) Sturtian Tillite;
(+) Quartzite in Tillite; (¢) Glen Osmond Upper Slates.
The range, of which the Peaked Hill forms a part, continues in a northerly
direction through the Hundred of Erskine to the boundary of the Hundred of
Yalpara, where it subsides to lower ground. Following on the same line of strike,
in a north-north-easterly direction, a further exposure of the tillite was observed
in the Hillpara Creek, at a distance of nine miles from the Peaked Hill. The bed
of the creek, as well as the adjoining hillsides, consist of the Sturtian Tillite. One
granite erratic in the bed of the creek measured three feet,
VI. WALLOWAY AND OLADDIE.
(Figs. 8 and 9.)
The Walloway Railway Station is situated seven miles to the northward of
Orroroo. The adjacent township is marked “Rye” on the official map. As the
position is on the edge of the alluvial plain geological sections are of a restricted
' kind, being limited to the railway cutting, near the railway station, and the banks
of the Walloway Creek. The latter takes its rise on the western slopes of the
Oladdie Hills, near Eurelia, and after flowing in a south-easterly direction for
about ten miles (mostly in a course adjacent io the railway), it takes a sudden
turn to the east and is soon lost in the plains. From the limited amount of rock
expostires the vertical range of the beds is restricted to few horizons.
The dominant geological feature of the locality is the Brighton Limestone
Series. To the southward the latter occurs near Orroroo, as described above,
and in a north-north-easterly strike, crosses the railway line, a little beyond the
Walloway Railway Station, and intersects the Walloway Creek, immediately
adjoining, where an interesting section of the beds ‘cccurs. | Fig. 8.]
174
The lowest member of the Adelaide Series, seen in the creek, consists of the
Tapley’s Hill Banded Slates. On the eastward side they are cut off by the alluvial
sediments of the plain. In a westerly direction they continue for about a quarter
of a mile at a high angle of dip, having an average pitch of 75°, reaching the
vertical in places. ‘towards their upper limits they become calcareous, but more
or less siliceous, showing the “vermiculate” structure, often seen at this horizon,
and are sometimes earthy. These impure beds pass up into more definite lime-
stones, as usually occurs in the Brighton Series. The limestone is generally of a
bluish tint, or nearly black, in colour, often carrying veins of calcite, and, in places,
becomes of a pinkish or buff colour. The calcareous zone continues for several
hundred yards. In the railway cutting the limestone is exposed for about 80 yards
with a dip W. 10° N. at 83°.
The limestone ends in the creek quite suddenly with a dip W. at 78°, and is
followed by an alluvial bank for about 100 yards, at the end of which the Purple
Slates Series makes its appearance. Passing through the culvert under the rail-
way line, and following the bed of a small tributary to the main creek, a better
view of these beds can be obtained. Here the strong limestone ends abruptly
with a small scarp face and, after a few yards of talus, the overlying Purple
Series is seen with thin reddish quartzites and an arenaceous limestone, followed
by reddish laminated slates that have a dip W. at 72°, the section being closely
similar to the Purple Slates Series in other parts of the State.
Fig. 8.
Geological Sketch-Section, Walloway Creek,
(a) Purple Slates Series; (b) Limestone (Brighton Series);
(c) Banded Slates (Tapley’s Hill Series),
Within 100 yards from the main limestone a strike fault cuts off the purple
slates and brings to the surface the laminated and banded slates of the Tapley’s
Hill and Brighton Series. The beds, which at first have a low dip to the east-
north-east, change a little higher up to west-north-west at an angle of about 15°,
and, finally, at a mile distance, pass under the second outcrop of the Brighton
Limestone. Taken as a whole, the section reveals an anticline broken by a fault
with a very considerable downthrow.
GEOLOGICAL SECTION BETWEEN WALLOWAY AND EuURELIA.
The railway between the two stations mentioned runs so close to the margin
of the Walloway Creek that it is easy to observe the geological features exposed
in the creek from the train while in motion. In this way the following observa-
tions were made. The most striking feature seen in the seven miles’ journcy
between the two places was a further fault and repetition in the Brighton Series,
as shown in the following sketch-section, [Fig. 9.| After passing over the
Purple Slates Series for some distance, the siliceo-calcareous beds of the upper
part of the Tapley’s Hill horizon were in view, showing a dip to the north-west.
This dip ultimately brought to the surtace the Brighton Limestone, which, in a
175
short distance, was cut by a fault-plane on its northern side. This fault brought
the Tapley’s Hill beds, by a down-cast, up against the limestone, so that the latter
had the Tapley’s Hill beds both above and below it. The Tapley’s Hill beds, in
the faulted area, showed. at the surface for about a milc, giving some evidence
of crush, and were then succeeded once more by the Brighton Limestone, being
the fourth exposure of this limestone in succession within the limits of about
five miles. Following on the limestone the Purple Slates Series also once more
came into view, and henceforth became the constant surface feature for an
indefinite distance in a northward direction.
Fig, 9.
Geological Sketch-Section in Walloway Creek, between Walloway and Eurelia.
{Sketched from the train while in motion.]
(a) Purple Slates Series: (>) Limestone (Brighton Series);
(c) Banded Slates (Tapley’s Hill Series).
Ancient Alluvium—At a point nearly opposite the township of Walloway
(Rye) the creek bed and sides are occupied by a great mass of very siliceous
consolidated gravels and sands. The thickness of these beds. is not shown, but
they greatly exceed the dimensions of the present creek’s deposits. They are seen
in regular bedded masses in vertical faces up to 20 feet, and exhibit a continuous
outcrop along the creek for more than a quarter of a mile. Higher up the stream
they are seen to rest on the eroded edges of the Adelaide Series, and, easterly,
they become obscured in the recent sandy clays of the plain.
OvappigE TIints.
The Oladdie Hills form an isolated group of highlands situated in a north-
easterly direction from Walloway, at a distance of about twelve miles. Mr. Knight,
of Walloway, kindly acted as my guide. The hills mentioned (lying to the east-
ward of the strike of the Brighton Series, that have a westerly dip in the Walloway
district) gave promise of containing some of the lower members of the Adelaide
Series, which proved to be the case. Following the main north-east Johnburgh
road, the Oladdie Creek, which forms the main artery of drainage for the group,
was passed in Section 83, Hundred of Oladdie. Taking advantage of a branch
road that led to the hills, and passing up a small creek that crossed the road, the
base of the hills was reached in a quarter of a mile. Herc, thin-bedded calcareous
and siliceous slates showed themselves with a dip to west-south-west at 25°. On
reaching the second heights, about two-thirds from the top, the tillile was met
with, and at the crest of the hill, hard siliceous slates and quartzites. No oppor-
tunity occurred to make a more particularized examination of the ground. Mr.
Knight stated that the tillite continues in a north-easterly direction, past the
Oladdie Head Station, on the eastern side of the Prince Alfred Mine, and about
four or five miles on the western side of the Baratta Head Station, covering a
distance of 70 miles.
176
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.
The author is much indebted to the Rev. E. M. Ingamells, B.A., and the
Rev. B. S. Howland, for facilities afforded in visiting the localities mentioned in
this paper and for the interest they, respectively, manifested in obtaining the
required geological data.
DESCRIPTION OF PLATES.
Pirate VIII.
Fig. 1. North face of Depot Hill and Faulted Block in the foreground. With the
exception of the clear edge of slate, on which the camera rested, the entire view consists
of Tillite.
Fig. 2. Langitudinal view of the Depot Range (5 miles) with Faulted Block in the
foregound. With the exception of the clear edge of slate, on which the camera rested,
the entire view consists of Tillite.
Prate IX.
Fig. 1. Portion of Black Rock Range. Crest of “Granite Top,” showing Glen
Osmond Quartzite resting on Glen Osmond Lower Slates. View taken nearly parallel
to the direction of strike.
Fig. 2. “Peaked Hill,” situated east of Orroroo and in line with the Black Rock
Range, from which it is distant seven miles. View of portion of the Tillite Outcrop.
| Photographs by Author.]
177
NOTES ON SOME SOUTH AND CENTRAL AUSTRALIAN MAMMALS.
Parr I,
Petaurus breviceps, Thalacomys lagotis, Petrogale lateralis.
By H. H. Finlayson, S.A. Museum.
[Read September 11, 1930.]
1, Petaurus breviceps, the smallest of the Phalangeridae in which the flying
membrane is sufficiently developed to permit of gliding flights of some duration,
has a wide distribution throughout the eastern forest. tract of Australia, from
Cape York to Tasmania,“ and as the variety papuanus occurs in New Guinea
as well.
In the stringy-bark forests of the Portland district of Western Victoria it is
plentiful, and as large tracts of very similar country are to be found in the
adjacent South-Eastern district of this State, its apparent absence from, or at any
rate, great rarity in, South Australia, has long been a matter of note,
On several occasions I have seen captive examples in the border towns of
Frances, Naracoorte and Penola, but in each case these pets had been brought
across from Victoria. It is said, by residents, to occur in the pine plantations
between Penola and Mount Gambier, but whether this is so or not, Wood-Jones’
statement in 1924, that “there is no definite record of it having been taken in S.A.”
has remained true till the present ‘(Mammals of S.A,, pt. ii., p. 194). It is satis-
factory, therefore, to be able at last to report the taking of two individuals in
South Australian territory, a clear 30 miles west of the Victorian border,
The first specimen (an incomplete skin), for which I am indebted to Mr.
James Clifford, of Furner, was obtained in July, 1929, at the Diamond Swamp, in
the Hundred of Short; and the second, for which I have to thank Mr. Walter
Foster, of Naracoorte, was got at Callendale, in the Hundred of Coles, about
10 miles north of the first locality. These places are about midway between the
border at Comaum and the coast at Nora Crina Bay, and both constitute small
oases of big timber and grassland on one of the broadest stretches of heath in
the district—a heath which extends with practically no break from this point to
Penola.
The gentlemen named are both familiar with the fauna of the district, and
as this is the first occasion that they have observed the animal, it appears certain
that it is only just invading this country as a result of a slow westerly drift from
some of its Victorian strongholds. The heath is not well suited to its habits, and
this perhaps sufficiently accounts for its long confinement to the border district ;
a few miles further east, however, it will reach a much richer type of country,
where the dwarf stringy-barks are replaced by well-grown red and blue gums,
and here it may be expected to increase rapidly if it receives any tolerance from
the settlers.
@) Tt was introduced into Tasmania in 1835, and the general belief that it had no place in
the indigenous fauna of the island appears to rest ultimatcly on the statement of Gunn, that
“no species of Petaurus is indigenous to Tasmania” (Proc. Royal Soc, Tasmania, vol. i, p. 253,
and Tasmanian Journal, vol. il, p. 458). Whether the fauna of so tugged and inaccessible a
country was sufficiently well known at the time to justify this sweeping statement, may be
doubted, the more so as its distribution at Present appears to be as wide as any of the undoubtedly
indigenous mammals.
178
2 In October, 1929, the S.A. Museum received a small collection of
mammals made by Mr. R. Williams, in the Musgrave Ranges, near the south-
western border of Central Australia. The chief interest of the collection centres
‘1a tabbit bandicoot which was obtained at Opparinna Spring, about 50 miles
north-east of Mount Woodroffe. The specimen is an aged female with partly
furred pouch young, and on examination proves to be referable to Thalacomys
lagotis (Reid).
In 1905, Oldfield Thomas (Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist, (7), xvi., 1905, p. 426),
on the evidence afforded by a specimen from Killalpaninna, on Cooper’s Creek,
S.A., described a new species of Bilby, somewhat closely allied to Th. lagotis
under the name Th. sagitta, and in so doing he appears to have been under the
impression that the new species was the South Australian representative of
Th. lagotis, the latter being confined to Western Australia. Wood-Jones, in his
comprehensive paper on the genus, im 1923 (Records of the S.A. Museum, vol. il.,
No. 3, 1923), in correcting this, pointed out that the new species, Th, sagitla, was
confined to the far northern districts of South Australia and to the centre, while
lagotis, identical with the Western Australian animal, was the characteristic
species of the “more watered and more fertile districts of the southern portion
of South Australia.”
As a consequence of these and other remarks derived from the latest work
on the genus, it would seem 1o be implied, that (a) Th. lagotis is absent from the
central districts, and (b) the earlier records of Peragale lagotis, by Baldwin
Spencer and Sanger, apply to Th. sagitta (Thos.) rather than to Th. lagotis
(Reid).
The Opparinna specimen (S.A. Museum, number M2569) has the following
approxmnate dimensions (taken from the filled skin). Ilead and body, 360 mm. ;
tail, 200 mm.; ear, 75 mm.; pes, 90 mm. It is thus considerably smaller than
the average adult female lagotis from Western Australia, and little larger than
sagilta. From the latter, however, it 1s at once distinguished by several characters,
both external and cranial. The pelage is almost exactly as in the western lagoits,
the black portion of the tail is considerably longer than the white, and the lower
surface of the pes is black throughout its posterior two-thirds.
In the skull it resembles Jagotis, and differs from sagitta in that (a) the
nasals reach to within 2 mm. of the interlachrymal line ; (b) the molar series has
a rounded outline without the cven posterior divergence of sagitta; and (c) the
molar teeth are very large.
The large size of the molars is the most notable feature of the skull and
identifies it very positively with /agotis since the teeth in this species, although
they vary in size within rather wide limits, are always markedly larger than in
any other form.
The transverse diameter of M2 in the skull under consideration is 5°5 mm.,
as against 4-0 mm. for the corresponding tooth in the sagitta skull, measured by
Wood-Jones (S.A. Museum, reg. number M.1622); an extraordinarily large
difference in skulls which differ but little in basal length.
It is to be regretted that Mr, Williams was unable to obtain an adequate
series of this interesting Bilby, but as the characlers on which the identification
@) Not to be confused with Opparinna Well, 75 miles south of this locality, in country
traversed by the Elder Expedition.
@) The palate has been damaged so that it is not passible to test-the site of the last molar,
relative to its posterior margin—a feature, held by Wood-Jones to have specific value within
the genus, but which in Jagotts, at least, appears to be rather variable and considerably influenced
by age.
179
rests are quite pronounced, the récord of this single specimen may perhaps suffice
to reinstate Th. lagotis in a somewhat dwarfed form, as a member of the Central
fauna,
3. The rock wallaby obtained by the Horn Expedition in the MacDonnell
Range was assigned by Baldwin Spencer to Petrogale lateralis Gould, with the
remark that “all the specimens seen were of the typical colouration.” (Horn
Expd. Report, “Mammals,” p. 15.)
These specimens were obtained at Paisley’s Bluff, 37 miles west of Alice
Springs and 1,200 odd miles from the type locality in the Swan River district of
Western Australia. From a consideration of this immense distance, and in view
of the subsequent separation by Oldfield Thomas of two insular races of
Pt. lateralis, as full species under the names Pt, hacketti and Pt. pearsoni, it seems
very likely that a critical examination of adequate series of rock wallabies from
the centre and south-western Western Australia, would reveal much greater
differences than have so far been described. The more so as Stirling and Zietz
(Trans. Roy. Soc, S.A., vol. xvi. (1892-1896), p. 155) had already noted that the
rock wallabies obtained by the Elder Expedition in the Barrow Range, 450 miles
west-south-west of Alice Springs, were more conspicuously marked than those
from the latter place, ~
The material available in Adelaide is inadequate for such a comparison, and
the purpose of the present note is to record certain colour variations, either stub-
specific or seasonal in character, which occur within a comparatively small area of
the centre itself, and to draw attention to the ‘necd for a complete revision of the
species, by those who possess material from the type locality,
In August of last year, while acting as a member of the Adelaide University
Anthropological Expedition to Hermannsberg, Mr. H. M, Hale obtained for the
S.A. Museum a series of five skins and skulls of rock wallabies which had been
brought in by the blacks from Koporilya Spring, 10 miles west-south-west from
the Mission Station. These skins, while showing the characteristic markings of
lateralis, are distinguished at once by the strikingly parti-coloured nature of the
dorsal surface; the contrast between the light areas of the neck and shoulders on
the one hand, and dark lumbar area on the other, being much enhanced from
what usually obtains.
When compared with skins taken at Alice Springs and Simpson’s Gap (80-
100 miles east), the following differences are noticeable. On the neck and
shoulders the colour is a clear ashy grey, free from any fulvous suffusion, and
markedly grizzled by the presence of a white sub-terminal band on the guard hairs.
The fur is harsher and less silky in texture on these parts, and recalls somewhat
the condition in the penicillata group.
The colour of the lower back varies slightly in the different skins, but in the
darkest (M.2683) it is a dull purplish-brown (near Ridgway’s Carob Brown).
and in all is very different from the luminous fawny brown hues of the more
easterly skins. The axillary patch, and the nuchal, loreal and lateral stripes are
individually more strongly developed, but in a general view the skin appears
sombre, ‘The tail is darker throughout its length, and for its distal half is quite
black above and below—much as in hacketti but with shorter brush hairs. ‘The
carpus and metacarpus are yellowish-brown and strongly contrasted with the much
darker digits; in the Alice Springs material the whole of the manus is a dull
uniform brown with little differentiation of the digits. On the other hand, the
pes in the Koporilya specimens is darker and the terminal ungual tuft not con-
spicuously contrasted with the toe.
The skulls are those of males, and the four which are undamaged are from
very old individuals in which the fourth molar has undergone considerable wear
180
and is 5 mm. or more in advance of the posterior margin of the palate. For
comparison with this material, a series of seven skulls in a similar dental stage
has been available, derived from Alice Springs and Simpson’s Gap, and the mean
value of the chief cranial measurements is appended. The Alice Springs skulls, |
unfortunately, are incompletely sexed, and most of the discrepancies which this
comparison brings to light are probably assignable to this cause. Although the
Koporilya skulls are uniformly large and heavy, a detailed comparison, point for
point, fails to give any indication of structural differences of importance, and the
largest males of each series are in very close agreement (see table).
There is, thus, no question of more than subspecific differences involved, and
since the more westerly skins were taken in August and the easterly in October,
it is possible that the differences in pelage noted may represent the extremes due
to a seasonal change. Oldfield Thomas refers in several papers to the “bleached”
or “faded” condition of certain rock wallaby skins, but no change so marked as
that which is dealt with herein appears to have been previously described.
SKULL DIMENSIONS OF PETROGALE LATERALIS (in millimetres).
(Aged individuals only; P* and M* in place.)
Mean
of Seven
Mean Alice Springs Largest Largest
of Four : and Koporilya | Alice Springs
epee Shame San) ee |e
(3). | @+ 9.) s’whs. | SIAL Mas.
a —
Greatest length .... wer aa) 104 96 107 107
Basal length .... - - 92 86 94 96
Zygomatic breadth... oe 54:6 §2:5 54-5 53
Nasals length .... ere ot 48 43 50°5 49
Nasals greatest breadth 1 14 13 | 14 14
Depth of muzzle hoe Abe 16 14-3 | 16:5 18
Constriction ud $e09 in 12 11-7 13 12
Palate length .... nh bu 61 57 62 61°5 (ca)
Palate breadth inside M? _.... 16-6 16 16°5 17
Palatal foramina as. _ 5-4 6 5°5 5°5
Diastema oe aT ches 18 16-8 19°5 19
Basicranial oxis 7 ~~ 28 27 28°5 30:5
Basifacial oxis .... sgl F 67+4 59 68-5 68
Facial index 665 ve ate 239 221 240 | 222
Molars 1—3 __..... = fat 16-7 | 16-6 16-0 15 (ca)
PEL a da eo 7-0 6-5 | 7-0 7-0
Two individuals, measured in the flesh by Mr. Hale, gave the following results:—
Head and Body. Tail.
M. 2682... Pa bese vite 546 mm. 495 mm.
M. 2683... an aan .. 559 mm. 584 mm.
181
ABSTRACTS OF THE PROCEEDINGS
OF TITE
ROYAL SOCIETY OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA
(Incorporated)
FOR THE YEAR FROM NoveMBeER 1, 1929, ro OcroseR 31, 1930.
Orpinary MeEetinc, Novemper 14, 1929,
The Vice-PresipentT (Dr. Charles Fenner) in the chair, and 27 Members
present. ‘
Minutes of the Annual Meeting were read and confirmed.
CORRESPONDENCE—
A letter of acknowledgment from the President (Dr. L. Keith Ward),
thanking Fellows for having re-elected him as President for a further term,
was read,
A letter from the Secretary, Department of Home Affairs, Commonwealth
of Australia, stating that free transport to the value of £25 was granted over
the Commonwealth railways for foodstuffs, for the aborigines of the Hermanns-
berg district, was read.
Motions—
Mr. Roach moved, and Mr. Bailey seconded: “That the name of the
Acting Honorary Secretary, Mr. Ralph W. Segnit, be forwarded to the Savings
Bank of S.A. for the purpose of operating on the Society’s Account.” Carried.
Mr. Kimber moved: “That this Society records its great appreciation of
the action of the Board of Governors in purchasing the splendid collection of
shells of the late W. L. May, of Tasmania.” Mr. Kimber said that we are aware
that this State is very fortunate in having such a generous citizen as Sir Joseph
Verco, who assisted so liberally in defraying the cost of the May collection. Our
obligations to Sir Joseph have been added to recently, as he has purchased and
presented to the Museum the very fine collection of the late Messrs. W. T. Bednall
and E. H. Matthews. These collections, in addition to that invaluable one of
Sir Joseph’s, are now in the National Museum, and make our conchological collec-
tion a very valuable one.
The CHAIRMAN extended an invitation to the Fellows of the Society, on
behalf of the President of the Royal Geographical Society of Australia (S.A.
Branch), to be present at a lecture to be delivered by Mr. C. T. Madigan, ort
December 2, in connection with his recent Air Survey Expedition over part of
Central Australia.
ELecrion oF FrELLow.—Worsley C. Johnston, Government Agricultural
Inspector, Riverton. A ballot was taken and Mr. Johnston was declared elected.
NoMINATION as FELLow.—Rev. Napoleon IIenry Louwyck, Minister of
Religion, The Rectory, Yankalilla, was received.
Parer.—‘‘Notes on Australian Polyplacophora, No. 1, by Epwin AsHpy,
F.L.S., M.B.O.U., and Bernarp C. Corron.
Exurpirs—Mr, Ratpo W. Sgenitr exhibited an Ivory Gull, Pagophila
eburnea, which he collected in Ice Fiord, Spitzbergen, during the Oxford Uni-
versity Expedition to Spitzbergen in 1921. Mr, ARTHUR M. Lea exhibited two
182
drawers of very interesting insects recently obtained from Papua. They included
sume of the largest and most remarkable species from that httle-known country.
The Rev. |. C. Jennison exhibited some artifacts from an aboriginal camp site
near Baldina Creek, Burra district, 5.A. He said that the collection, numbering
50 specimens, included chipped-back knives, so-called “spear heads,” scrapers and
drills. The whole region, apparently for miles along both banks of Baldina Creek,
above and below the spring at the Broken Hill road crossing, though stony ground,
had been used as camp sites, The enormous quantities of stone implements
scattered everywhere is evidence of the use of this place as a camp area for a very
long period. Mr, A. E. Epguist exhibited a seedling mallee, three years of age.
‘The specimen showed the development of the swollen stem, commonly known as
“mallee root? The mallee root is really a swollen portion of the stem from which
branches grow in a ring. The specimen was grown from seed collected from
Kangaroo Island.
Mr. A. A. Simpson then moved that this Society communicate with the
Minister of Railways, requesting that a list of the protected fauna be placed in
all railway stations in South Australia for the information of the public. The
motion was seconded by Dr. Morgan, and carried unanimously,
The CHAIRMAN announced that a satisfactory agreement had been reached
with reference to the use of part of the central room, between this Society and
the Royal Geographical Society of Australia (S.A. Branch).
Dr. T. D. Campseti put forward a suggestion that one or two meetings in
the year be devoted to special subjects, with a view to encouraging. discussions.
Dr. T. D. Campbell then moved, and Mr. Arthur M. Lea seconded, that this
matter be placed before the Council. Carried.
Orprnary Meerinc, Aprit 10, 1930.
‘Tire Presipent (Dr. L. Keith Ward) occupied the chair, and 41 Members
were present,
Minutes of the Ordinary Meeting, held on November 14, 1929, were read
and confirmed.
Tin Presipent referred to the irreparable loss caused by the death of Pro-
fessor T. Brailsford Robertson, He said Professor Robertson was a most dis-
tinguished investigator, his genius being directed towards the solving of some
of the most important national problems. His decease left Australia much the
poorer.
Tne Presipent then referred to the successful return of the “Discovery”
from the Antaretic, and on behalf of the Society congratulated Sir Douglas
Mawson, a former President, and Professor T. Harvey Johnston, Vice-President
of the Society, on their stccessful trip. ‘hey would await with interest
the scientific results of the expedition, confident that they would fully justify
the arduous work which had been undertaken.
The attention of the Fellows was then directed to the Rules governing the pre-
sentation of papers to the Society for reading. The President laid special stress
on the “Suggestions to Authors,” and the time of lodging the papers for con-
sideration by the Council.
Tip RESIGNATION OF THE SECRETARY (Dr. R. H. Pulleine) was placed before
the Fellows and accepted. Nominations were then called to fill the vacancy.
Mr. B. 5. Roach nominated, and Dr. R. H. Pulleine seconded, the name of Mr.
Ralph W. Segmit. There being no other nomination, the President declared
Mr. Segnit elected.
Tare SECRETARY read a notice received from the Secretary of the A.AVA.S.,
requesting that delegates be appointed for the meeting to be held in Brisbane from
183
May 28 to June 4, 1930. Dr, Charles Fenner moved, and Dr. R. H. Pulleine
seconded, that Mr. Ernest H. Ising and Mr. C. S. Piper, M.Sc., be elected dele-
gates. Carried.
‘HE PRESIDENT referred to correspondence received from the Secretary of
the Royal Society of Victoria, relating to a conference to be held at the Brisbane
meeting ot the A.A.A.S., to discuss the advisability of the federation of the
Royal Societies of Australia, and asking for two delegates to be appointed. It
was agreed that two delegates be appointed, and that they report the result of the
conference to the Society at a later date. Dr. R. H. Pulleine moved, and Mr. B. S.
Roach seconded, that the President (Dr. L. Keith Ward) and Dr. Charles Fenner
be elected delegates. Carried.
THe Presipenr said that the suggestion brought forward by Dr. ‘Tb. D.
Campbell to hold one or two meetings a year for the purpose of discussion on
selected subjects, had been referred to the Council, who recommended the sugges-
tion to the Members and had set aside the May Ordinary Meeting for the purpose.
Dr. T. D. Campbell then gave a brief outline of his idea. The subject would be
“The Antiquity and the Primitiveness of Man in Australia,” and would be taken
up in the form of four short lecturettes.
ELecTIon or Fettow.—Rev. Napoleon Henry Louwyck, Minister of Religion,
Vhe Rectory, Yankalilla. A ballot was taken and Napoleon Henry Louwyck was
declared elected.
ParERs—
“The Major Physiographic Features of South Australia, by CHARLES
Fenner, D.Sc.
“Additions to the Flora of South Australia, No. 28,” by J. M. Brack.
In the absence of the author this paper was read by Mr, J. G. Woon, M.Sc.
“Physiological and Mental Observations on the Australian Aborigines,”
by R, H. Putteine, M.B., Ch.M., and Professor H. H., Woo.tarp, M.D.
“Physiological and Psychological Observations on the Australian Abori-
gines, Parts L-\’.,” by H. K. Fry, D.S.O., M.B., B.S., B.Sc.
OrpINARY MereTING, May 8, 1930.
THE Presipent (Dr. L. Keith Ward) occupied the chair, and 69 Members
and visitors were present.
Minutes of the Ordinary Meeting held April 10, 1930, were read and
confirmed.
Tur PRresipenv read a letter received from the local Secretary of the Council
for Scientific and Industrial Research relating to the Catalogue of Scientific and
Technical Periodicals in Australian libraries.
THE Present referred to the passing by death of Francis H. Snow—a
Fellow of this Society.
NoMINATION As Fettow.—Una Hayston Mitchell, B.Sc., School Mistress,
Presbyterian Girls’ College, Glen Osmond, was read.
Parer.—‘Contributions to the Orchidology of Papua and Australia,” by
R. S. Rocers, M.A., M.D.
Composite Lecture— “The Primitiveness and Antiquity of Man in Aus-
tralia.” Four.very interesting and instructive lectures were delivered by :—-
Dr. L. KerrH Warp gave an account of “Earliest Man and his probable
Entrance into Australia by way of the Islands to the North and North-west of
Australia,” and exhibited charts and diagrams showing the geological age as
determined by various authorities of his entry.
184
Dr. CHarces FENNER gave a summary of the “Farliest Known Relics.”
Dr. T. D. CAMPBELL gave an account of the “Human Remains” found in
Australia, for which antiquity has been claimed, and exhibited a cast of the
Talgai skull.
Mr. N. B. Trxpate gave a brief summary of the latest views on the
“Cultural Status of the Aborigines,” illustrating his remarks by a series of
original diagrams depicting the distribution of various ethnological phenomena.
‘THe PreswenTt thanked the lecturers for their very interesting addresses,
and expressed regret that time did not allow for any discussion, and declared the
meeting closed at 10.15 p.m.
Orpinary Mertine, June 12, 1930.
Tur Preswent (Dr. L. Keith Ward) occupied the chair, and 36 Members
and visitors were present.
The Minutes of the Ordinary Meeting, held May 8, 1930, were read and
confirmed.
Tue Presipent referred to the presentation to the Society of two volumes,
“Tomb of Tutankhamen,” by the Rev. Henry Louwyck, and asked that the thanks
of the Society be recorded for the gift.
Morions
It was proposed by Mr. B. S. Roach, seconded by Mr. W. H. Selway, that
a letter of congratulation be sent to Professor J. R. Wilton on having the high
honour of the Sc.D. degree conferred on him by the University of Cambridge,
and that the same be recorded in the minutes. Carried.
Professor T. Harvey Johnston moved, and Professor J. A. Prescott
seconded, that the congratulations of the Society be tendered to Sir Douglas
Mawson on being the recipient of the Mueller Medal from the A.A.A.S., and
that the same be recorded in the minutes. Carried.
The President then expressed the sincere thanks of the Society to the
Secretary, Mr. Ralph W. Segnit, for the improvements to the lay-out and light-
ing of the Society’s rooms, Great credit was due to Mr. Segnit, both as to the
conception and the way in which the work had been carried out. Carried with
acclamation.
ELECTION oF FELLow.—Una Hayston Mitchell, B.Sc., Presbyterian Girls’
College, Glen Osmond. A ballot was taken, and the President declared Miss
Mitchell duly elected.
Nominations As Fettows.—Frank Vernon Collins, B.V.Sc., Commonwealth
Veterinarian, Green Road, Woodville; Thomas Talbot Colquhoun, M.Se., Lec-
turer and Demonstrator in Botany, Adelaide University; Frederick John_ITall,
Engineer, Adclaide Electric Supply Coy. Ltd., Adelaide; Garth Palmer Ocken-
den, Student, 11 Ailsa Street, Fullarton Estate ; Professor Herbert John Wilkin-
son, B.A., Ch.M., M.D., University of Adelaide.
PAPERS—
“Notes on the Flora North-west of Port Augusta, between Lake Torrens
and Tarcoola,” by J, Burton CLeranp, M.D.
“An Analysis of the Vegetation of Kangaroo Island and the Adjacent
Peninsulas,” by J. G. Woop, M.Sc.
Exutsits—Mr, Artuur M. Lea exhibited species of the prickly pear moth,
Cactoblastis cactorum, received from Mr. A, P. Dodd, with some photographs
showing how prickly pears were completely destroyed by it. Also, some remark-
able Orthopterous insects from a cave on Flinders Island (Bass Strait), received
from Mr. H. H. Finlayson, and some sheet lead which had been used on under-
ground telephone cables, showing the destructive work of white ants. Mr, Epwin
Asupy exhibited roots of Arum aroidea,
185
Orpinary MEETING, JuLy 10, 1930.
THe Presipent (Dr. L. Keith Ward) occupied the chair, and 56 Members
and visitors were present.
Minutes of the Ordinary Meeting, held June 12, 1930, were read and
confirmed.
Sir JosepyH Verco Mepavyist.—The President then addressed the Members
as follows :—
“The most pleasing of the duties which must be performed by the Council
of this Society is the selection of one of its Fellows for the award of the Sir
Joseph Verco Medal for distinguished scientific work. The time has come for
the submission to the Society of the name of the second recipient.
“The choice of the Council has been unanimous, and has fallen on one of its
senior Fellows who is not at present in South Australia, but who is representing
this Society at an important conference in Great Britain. I refer to Mr. John
McConnell Black, who is a Fellow of many years’ standing, and at the present
time a member of the Council.
“In submitting his name to the Society for its verdict, your Council would
have me express its deep appreciation of the service to science, and to the State,
by Mr. Black, whose wise counsel has been available at all times to the Society
in its corporate capacity, and to the many individual Fellows who have had
occasion to consult him.
“Mr. Black is a man of many parts. Educated in Scotland, England, and
Dresden, he came to Australia in 1877 and engaged in farming in the Baroota
district for the next five years. For the following 20 years he was on the literary
staff of the Adelaide Press, and, after withdrawing from this work, concentrated
his energy mainly upon the study of the systematic botany of South Australia.
But he has not neglected the claims of literature to which his early training and
more mature study have held him captive. An accomplished linguist, he is an
authority on the structure of languages generally.
“Mr. Black’s contributions to the Society have been distinguished for the
modesty with which they have been presented as for their crisp clarity. His
labours have been such that they have been completed but for a strong sense: of
devotion to science and fine ideals. To him the achievement of his aims has
certainly been a great reward. But your Council asks you to record the appre-
ciation of the value of this work to science by the award of the highest honour at
your disposal.
“At the moment Mr. Black is representing this Society at a conference con-
vened in Cambridge to deal with botanical nomenclature, and we are fortunate in
having so distinguished a representative.
“At the desire of the Council, I am asking the Director of the Botanical
Gardens (Mr. J. F. Bailey) to address you with regard to Mr. Black’s contribu-
tions to botany, and I am asking a former President of this Society, who is him-
self a foremost authority on the orchids of Australia, Dr, R. S. Rogers, to support
the proposal.”
Mr. J. F. Bailey said :—
“Mr. President.—It affords me much pleasure to propose to the Members
that the decision of the Council in recommending that the Sir Joseph Verco Medal
be awarded to John McConnell Black be adopted.
“Mr. Black has always taken a kecn interest in botanic nomenclature, and is
at present in England with the object of attending the International Botanic
Nomenclature Congress to be held in Cambridge next month, as the Australian
representative on the Committee.
G
186
“Tt is scarcely necessary for me to remind the Members of the great amount
of work carried out by Mr. Black in making known the flora of this State, for
in this connection his name has been prominently before the Society for many
years.
“In recognition of his services in the cause of botany, the Council of the
Adelaide University appointed Mr. Black as Honorary Lecturer in Botany at
that institution.
“Tn 1909 Mr. Black published an illustrated work on “The Naturalized Flora
of South Australia,” and this has been of great value to the man on the land, as it
deals with many of the weeds with which he has to contend.
“Mr. Black has visited many parts of this State at his own expense in pursuit
of material for his favourite study, and the results of his investigations have,
from time to time, been embodied in papers presented to this Society and pub-
lished in its Proceedings. During some of these journeys Mr. Black, who is an
expert linguist, acquired a knowledge of native languages in certain districts
which enabled him to compile the vocabularies to be found in the Proceedings of
this Society. By this means he obtained much useful information regarding the
uses to which certain plants were applied by the aborigines.
‘When the South Australian Branch of the British Science Guild arranged
for the publication of handbooks on scientific subjects relating to South Australia,
it was only natural that Mr. Black’s aid should be sought to prepare the one on
the flora.” This huge task he willingly agreed to undertake, and last year the
fourth and last part was issued, In this publication the author has not only
described many new species, but has compared, and in many cases augmented,
the descriptions of those already brought under notice by other botanists, and
these factors have combined in giving to the botanic world a publication that is
proclaimed as the standard work on the State’s flora. While referring to this
work, it is but fair to add that the section devoted to Orchidaceae was entrusted
to, and ably treated by our friend Dr. R. 5S, Rogers, one of our former Presidents,
and who is the recognised Australian authority on this family of plants.
“Not only do we respect and esteem Mr, Black for his work in the realm
of botany, but also for his willingness at all times to give freely from his vast
store of knowledge to those seeking his advice on the subject. Our friend also
possesses the charm of endearing himself to those with whom he comes in contact.
“Tt is, therefore, fitting that the Members recognise Mr. Black’s merit by
awarding him this coveted medal, and I have pleasure in again proposing that
this course be adopted.”
Dr. R. S. Rogers, in seconding the motion, said :—
“The people of South Australia are deeply indebted to Mr, Black for the
elucidation of their flora, a purpose to which he has devoted nearly thirty years
of his life.
“At first his scientific researches were chiefly directed to the alien plants of
this country, and his “Naturalised Flora of South Australia” (1909), the first
of its kind available in the Commonwealth, is an excellently conceived and well
executed handbook of great economic importance.
“Since his election as a Fellow of this Society (1907), he has contributed
28 botanical papers, and has added to our census upwards of 100 new plants.
‘During the seven years, 1922-1929, he devoted practically the whole of his
time and energies to a critical review of the indigenous flora of this State, and
as a result of his researches, has presented us with an exhaustive handbook of
the “Flora of South Australia”; modern in its treatment and generously illustrated
with his own drawings. This work, which contains many original features, has
187
evoked the praise of critics throughout the botanical world. I venture to predict
that it will be the standard work of reference for at least the next 50 years.”
The motion was supported by Professor T, Harvey Johnston, and then put
to the meeting, and the President declared that the motion was unanimously
carried,
The President then read a letter received from Sir Joseph Verco in connec-
tion with the making of this award.
Exrection.—A ballot was taken and the following were declared duly elected
as Fellows :—Frank Vernon Collins, B.V.Sc.; Thomas Talbot Colquhoun, M.Sc. ;
Frederick John Hall; Garth Palmer Ockenden.
Nomrnations.—The following nominations for Fellows were read :—Lewis
George Morris, Optometrist, Beehive Building, King William Street, Adelaide;
Albert James Whitelaw, School Teacher, c/o Norwood High School, Kensington;
Edward Victor Dix, Civil Servant, Glynde Road, Firle; Walter Richard Birks,
B.Sc., Principal, Roseworthy Agricultural College; Stephen Denis Garrett, B.A.,
Plant Pathologist, Waite Agricultural Research Institute, Glen Osmond; Pro-
fessor Herbert John Wilkinson, B.A., M.D., Ch.M., University, Adelaide.
LECTURETTES.—“Fossil Man in the Murray Valley?” Five lecturettes on
some researches and excavations at Tartunga and Devon Downs, illustrated with
lantern slides and exhibits, were presented by :—
Mr. H. M. Hare, who gave a “Resumé of the Investigations.”
Mr. N. B. Trnpae dealt with the “Human Remains and Associated Arti-
facts,” and on behalf of Dr. T. D. Campbell, some “Dental Notes.”
Dr. CHARLES FENNER described the ‘‘Physiographic Aspect.”
Mr. H. H. Fintayson described the “Mammal Remains.”
In the discussion which followed, Proressor W. Howcuin made reference
to the thorough manner in which the investigations had been carried out, and
said that it stands as one of the finest efforts put forward in Australia in connec-
tion with this subject. Ie agreed that antiquity can be claimed for the results
presented, and suggested that in lieu of the term “distinct cultures,” as used
by Mr. Hale and Mr. Tindale, the term “different series of occupation’ be
substituted.
Dr. R. PULLEINE referred to the remark made by Mr. Finlayson, tha iome
doubt existed as to whether the early aborigines had used the so-called Tas: sanian
Devil (Sarcophilus) as food, and referred to the collection of materials he had
brought back from Tasmania, in which were bones of the mammal, some burnt
and charred, and included evidence that the early Tasmanians had probably used
this animal as food.
THE PRESENT congratulated the investigators on their very interesting and
important work, and said that the geologist had great difficulty in determining the
exact “time factor” in connection with the geological deposits. The results were
an example of good co-ordination and teamwork in scientific investigations, and
equalled any similar work carried out in Europe. Dr. Ward expressed the sincere
thanks of the Society to the Lecturers for offering such a splendid contribution
towards the evening’s meeting.
Orptnary Mretine, Avoust 14, 1930.
Tue Presipent (Dr. L. Keith Ward) occupied the chair, and 20 Members
were present,
Minutes of the Ordinary Meeting, held on July 10, 1930, were read and
confirmed.
188
Tuer PresipentT informed the Members that he had sent a cable to Mr. J. M.
Black, notifying him that he had been awarded the Sir Joseph Verco Medal by
this Society, and having received a cable reply thanking the Fellows for the honour
conferred.
Tur Presipenr then expressed the appreciation of the Members of this
Society of the honour conferred on Mr. J. M. Black on his having been elected
an Associate of the Linnean Society of London.
BaLtot as FeLLows.—A ballot was taken, and the following were declared
duly elected by the President -—Professor Herbert John Wilkinson, B.A., M.D.,
Ch.M.; Lewis George Morris; Albert James Whitelaw; Edward Victor Dix;
Walter Richard Birks, B.Sc.; Stephen Denis Garrett, B.A.
Nominations as Fetrows.—The following nominations were read :—Jack
Sargent Hosking, B.Sc., Assistant Chemist, Waite Agricultural Research Insti-
tute, 90 Cross Roads, Myrtle Bank; Anne Irene McFadyen, B.Sc., Teacher, Wal-
ford House School, Unley.
Parer—“On Some Coleoptera from Northern Australia. Collected by
Dr. H. Basedow,” by ArrHur M. Lea, F.E.S.
Exuipits—Mr,. Artuur M, Lea exhibited a drawer of Orthoptera from
New Guinea, including some Katydids with remarkable leaf-life wings and some
walking-stick insects nearly one foot in length. Professor T. Harvey JOHNSTON
exhibited two whale-darts, and a whaling-bomb, and gave an interesting account
of their uses in connection with the whaling industry in the Antarctic waters.
Dr. CHartrs FENNER exhibited a series of volcanic bombs from Buninyong,
Victoria, and two somewhat exceptional examples of glaciated rocks of the
Pleistocene from Western Tasmania. The President said that it was possible to
obtain from some places boulders having two sets of glaciated markings, one set
being from a later period of glaciation than the first, and in answer to Mr. Lea
gave a brief account of the latest researches in connection with the obsidian bombs
found in Central Australia. Dr. T. D. CAMPBELL exhibited a series of deciduous
teeth taken from the native rock shelter floor excavated by Messrs. Hale and
Tindale. Along with these were the corresponding deciduous tecth of an orang-
outang, and of modern white children. The Australian infants’ teeth showed
extraordinary pithecoid characteristics with regard to size and form.
Tut Presipent exhibited the following :—
Stichtite, a chromiferous magnesium hydroxycarbonate, occurring as
irregularly shaped masses, veins and blebs in serpentine at Dundas, Tasmania, in
the neighbourhood of the Adelaide mine. Weathered surlaces are dark brown,
but the fresh mineral ranges in colour from lilac to deep purple. The mineral
is built up of radiating tufts and plates about crystals of chromite. It is allied
to hydrotalcite, pyroaurite and brugnatellite. “he name was given in complimen-
tary reference to the late S. Sticht, General Manager of the Mount Lyell mine.
Rodingite, a rare rock from the Dun Mountain, near Nelson, in New
Zealand, occurring in the form of dykes which penetrate the dunite which is an
ultrabasic igneous rock composed almost wholly of granular olivine. Rodingite
consists essentially of greenish-white grossularite (lime-alumina garnct) and
diallage; and the grossularite is in many places altered to prehnite. Bell, Clarke
and Marshall, who determined the rock, regard it as a differentiation product of
the peridotite; rather than as the result of the assimilation of limestone by the
magnesian magma.
Dunite, from the Dun Mountain, Nelson, New Zealand, consisting essen-
tially of olivine, with which a little chromite is associated,
Ribbon-stone, a variety of banded flint, composed largely of granular
chalcedony together with some opal. Found on the surface of the Cambrian
189
limestone of North Australia, whence it has been set free by weathering. Some
specimens exhibit a very deep patina, others are polished by drifting sand and
show the typical desert varnish.
sokerite, natural wax from a depth of 6,000 feet in the Springleigh bore,
Queensland, which has a total depth of 7,008 feet.
Petrol, condensed from natural gas at a depth of 3-7,000 feet at Roma,
Queensland.
Crude Petroleum, from Taranaki, New Zealand.
Stellite is an alloy composed essentially of cobalt, chromium and tungsten,
which was discovered as a direct result of research carried out with the object
of finding a use for the cobalt of Ontario. On the development of the rock silver
ores found in 1903 at Cobalt, 330 miles north of Toronto, stocks of the metal
cobalt accumulated and could not be disposed of for the manufacture of pigments
and special steels. Systematic investigations resulted in the production of this
alloy, which is used to a small extent in the preparation of rustless cutting tools,
but extensively to replace high-speed tool stecls. Stellite will retain its hardness
almost to bright red heat—a temperature far above that at which steel softens.
On cooling, the heated stellite retains its hardness. It cannot be annealed and
cannot be machined except by grinding. Stellite, on account of its extraordinary
resistance to abrasion, is used today on the teeth of calyx boring bits. The stellite
is applied by the process of welding with the oxy-acetylene flame, which causes
the fusion of the alloy and the steel at, approximately, the same temperature
(2,336° F). A boring bit, the teeth of which are armed with stellite, was
exhibited, as well as a rod of the alloy itself. Bits armed in this manner are in
use by the Department of Mines of South Australia.
ORDINARY MEETING, SEPTEMBER 11, 1930.
Tue Presipent (Dr. L. Keith Ward) occupied the chair, and 30 Members
were present.
Minutes of the Ordinary Meeting, held August 14, were read and confirmed.
Evectrions.—Jack Sargent Hosking, B.Sc., and Anne Irene McFadyen, B.Sc.,
as Fellows. A ballot having been taken, the President declared them duly elected.
Nomination,—James Tinsley Gray, Pharmacist, Orroroo, as Fellow.
PAPERS—
“The Geology of Orroroo and Surrounding District,’ by Professor
Watter Howcun, F.G.S.
“Notes on Some South and Central Australian Mammals,” by H. H.
FINLAYSON,
“Descriptions of Australian Resupinate Hydnaceae,” by E. M. WAKEFIELD,
Communicated by Professor J. B. Cleland, M.D.
Exuisits—Mr. Artuur M. Lea exhibited a drawer of weevils from New
Guinea of the sub-family Brachyderinae, many of which were brilliantly coloured.
Mr. C, T. Mapican exhibited specimens of fossilized vegetables, which were pre-
sented to him by Mr. O’Grady, Arltunga, and said they were obtained from a place
about 74 miles E.S.E. from the Battery of Arltunga Goldfields. The President said
the specimens were of a fossilized fern, which he thought came from Paddy’s Plain,
between Bitter Springs Gorge and Arltunga Goldfields. Professor Walter Howchin
suggested that one of the specimens was Osmundites, related to the existing
“Royal Fern” (Osmunda), of which better specimens had been obtained from
the interior, probably from the “Desert Sandstone.”
190
ANNUAL MEETING, OcroBEer 9, 1930.
Tue PresipeNt (Dr. L. Keith Ward) occupied the chair, and 24 Members
were present.
Dr. D. S. Davipson, of Pennsylvania University, who is studying the Aus-
tralian Aborigines in Northern Australia, was welcomed as a visitor by the
President.
Apologies were received from Professor J. A. Prescott and Mr. H. M. Hale,
Minutes of the Ordinary Meeting, held September 11, 1930, were read and
confirmed.
Tire SECRETARY presented the Annual Report for the year 1929-1930. The
adoption was moved by Dr. T. D. Campbell, and seconded by Rev. J. C. Jennison,
and carried.
Tre Treasurer (Mr. B. S. Roach) presented the BaLance-sHEET. The
adoption was moved by Dr. Chas. Fenner, seconded by Mr. Bailey, and carried.
The President expressed the thanks of the Society to Mr. Roach for the valuable
services he had rendered to the Society as the Hon. Treasurer,
ELECTION oF OFFICERS FOR THE YEAR 1930-31.—Nominations were called
and the following clected :—President, Dr. Charles Fenner ; Vice-Presidents, Pro-
fessor ‘I. Ilarvey Johnston, M.A., D.Sc., and Professor J. A. Prescott, M.Sc.,
A.LC.; Secretary, Mr. Ralph W. Segnit, M.A., B.Sc.; Treasurer, Mr. B. S.
Roach; Editer, Professor Walter Howchin, F.G.5.; Members of Council, Mr.
A. M. Lea, F-E.S., Mr. J. F. Bailey, Mr. C. T. Madigan, M.A., B.Sc.; Auditors,
Mr. W. C. Hackett and Mr. O. Glastonbury.
Mr. James ‘linsley Gray, Pharmacist, Orroroo, was elected a Fellow of the
Society.
Mr. James Irvine Miller, C-E., Crystal Brook, 5.A., was nominated as a
Fellow.
Yur Presipent, on behalf of the Society, expressed the hope that Sir
Douglas Mawson and Professor T. Harvey Johnston would enjoy health and
success in connection with the second cruise of the Australian and New Zealand
Antarctic Expedition.
Dr. R. Lockwart Jack received the congratulations of the Society on hav-
ing had the D.Sc. degree conferred on him by the University of Adelaide.
A letter received from Mr. J. M. Brack was read, expressing appreciation
for the honour conferred on him by this Society in awarding him the Sir Joseph
Verco Medal for 1930. ;
Exnrnits.—Professor Wa trer Howcnurn exhibited the vertebra of an
Ichthyosaurian from the so-called “coprolite bed” near Cambridge, England. The -
vertebra can be distinguished, partly, by its large size, the Ichthyosaurus being
the largest of all the sea-going reptiles during the Mesozoic Era; also on account
of its narrowness and biconcave shape. It was a very powerful swimmer, with
a voracious habit. They existed in Australasian seas, as their remains are found
in the Trias of New Zealand and the Cretaceous of Australia, One nearly com-
plete skelcton, found at Marathon, Queensland, measures 25 [t. in length. Pro-
fessor Howchin also showed an ichthyosaurian coprolite. It has become a habit
to call all phosphatic nodules “coprolites,” many of which are of concretionary
origin, but the specimen exhibited is a true coprolite, showing the twist of the
gut and the polished enamelled scales of the ganoid fishes on which the reptile
had dined, embedded in the faecal matter. Dr. T. D. Camesrett exhibited some
pebbles and shell fragments collected on the sandy beach of Franklin Island.
They presented a highly polished surface, as if they were varnished. Other
unpolished stones from the same locality were shown. The President suggested
that the polish was a “phosphatic film” covering the pebbles. Mr, ArrHur M.
LEA exhibited two drawers of beetles of the family ‘“Tenebrionidae,” mostly from
191
New Guinea and Fiji, many of which were closely allied, if not identical, with
Queensland species. Also two species of remarkable gall insects of the genus
Apiomorpha, one of which constitutes an important article of aboriginal food;
and a striking mantis /dolum diabolicum from the Anglo-Egyptian Soudan, sent
by the Rev, D. N. McDiarmid and presented by Sir Joseph C. Verco. Mr. N. B.
‘TINDALE exhibited some native foods from MacDonald Downs, Central Australia.
Two species of grass seeds accumulated by a small species of ant are gathered
by the Hiaura natives, winnowed, ground, and cooked as a rough cake in the
ashes. Also the honey of a native bee (frigonia) much relished by the natives.
Mr, Tindale also showed a photograph of a native relief map, voluntarily made
by an Iliaura native to demonstrate the positions of various waterholes and hills
in his country; and a series of photographs showing a native preparing the seed-
cake. Mr, C. T. Mapican exhibited a fossilized log of wood from the Water-
house Ranges, south of Alice Springs, and the largest stone axe in Australia,
measuring 10 inches by 84 inches, from Birdsville; and the smallest stone axe
from an australite made by a native child.
ANNUAL REPORT
FOR THE YEAR ENDED SEPTEMBER 30, 1930.
The average attendance of Fellows at the meetings held during the year
has been 39,
The President, Dr. L. Keith Ward, received the congratulations of the
Society on his having been awarded the W. B. Clarke Medal by the Royal
Society of New South Wales.
Sir Douglas Mawson and Professor T. Harvey Johnston were welcomed
and congratulated by the Society on their safe return from the first cruise of
the Antarctic Expedition,
Professor J. R. Wilton received the congratulations of the Society on his
having had the Sc.D. degree conferred on him by the University of Cam-
bridge. :
During the year Dr. Robert Pullcine tendered his resignation as the
Honorary Secretary of the Society, and Mr. Ralph W. Segnit was elected to
the vacancy.
Mr. J. M. Black, a member of the Council, was granted leave of absence
to enable him to visit England and the Continent. During his absence the
Fellows of the Society awarded him the Sir Joseph Verco Medal for 1930.
Sir Douglas Mawson received the congratulations of the Society on being
the recipient of the Mueller Medal from the Australian and New Zealand
Association for the Advancement of Science. ;
Mr. J. M. Black has been elected an Associate of the Linnean Society of
London.
The Board of Anthropological Research, Adelaide University, sent
another expedition to the Interior. The following Fellows of the Society
accompanied the expedition :—Professor T. Harvey Johnston, Ir. R. Pulleine,
Professor J, B. Cleland, Dr. T. D. Campbell, Mr. Herbert M. Hale, Mr. N. B.
Tindale, Dr. H. K. Fry, and Professor H. J. Wilkinson.
Mr, Frederick Chapman, an Honorary Fellow, received the congratula-
tions of the Society on being the recipient of the Lyell Medal from the
Geological Society of London.
A re-arrangement in the layout of the Society room and improvements
to the lighting were effected during the year, and a new set of book shelves
purchased for the library. The use of half the Central Room in conjunction
with the Royal Geographical Society of Australasia (S.A. Branch) is much
appreciated.
192
During the year two'of the Ordinary Meetings were devoted to special
subjects, in the form of Anthropological lectures, which were largely attended.
The first was a composite lecture dealing with “The Primitiveness and
Antiquity of Man in Australia.” The following Fellows read short papers :—-
Dr. L. Keith Ward, Dr. Charles Fenner, Dr. T. D. Campbell, and Mr. N. B.
Tindale. Vhe second subject was entitled “Fossil Man in the Murray Valley,”
at which the following Fellows contributed short lectures:—-Mr. Herbert,
M. Hale, Mr. N. B. Tindale, Dr. Charles Fenner, Dr. T. D. Campbell, and
Mr. H. H. Finlayson.
Geological papers were contributed by Dr. Charles Fenner and Professor
Walter Howchin.
Zoological papers were read by Edwin Ashby, H. H. Finlayson, and
Arthur M. Lea.
Botanical papers were presented by J. M. Black, Dr. R. S. Rogers, Pro-
fessor J. B. Cleland, J. G. Wood, and Miss E, M. Wakefield, her paper being
communicated by Professor J. B. Cleland.
Anthropological papers were read by Dr. H. K. Fry, Dr. Robert Pulleine.
and Professor H. H. Woollard.
The membership of the Society shows a slight increase. Fellows elected
during the year, 15; 6 Fellows resigned, 4 died, and 1 was removed. “The
membership roll at the close of the year is as follows:—Honorary Members,
5; Fellows, 161; Associate, 1. ‘lotal 167.
During the year the Socicty has suffered loss by death of four Fellows,
namely, Professor T. Brailsford Robertson, Mr. Francis H. Snow, Mr. W.
A. Magarey, and Mr. A. S. Hirst.
An Obituary Notice of Professor Brailsford Robertson, written by Pro-
fessor Kerr Grant, appears at the close of this Report.
The Council has met on nine occasions, the attendance being as follows:
Dr. L. Keith Ward, 4; Professor T. Harvey Johnston, 5; Dr. Charles Fenner,
9: Mr. B. S. Roach, 9; Professor Walter Howchin, 9; Mr. Ralph W. Segnit, 8;
Mr. J. M. Black, 2; Professor J. H. Prescott, 5; Mr. J. ¥. Bailey, 7; Mr.
Arthur M. Lea, 7; Sir Joseph C. Verco, 0; Dr. T. D. Campbell, 8.
The absence of the President from four meetings was due to his appoint-
ment as a member of the Coal Commission, which necessitated his absence
from the State. In April Mr. J. M. Black was granted leave of absence to
visit England and the Continent; Dr. T. D. Campbell was in the interior of
Australia during the August meeting; Professor T. Ilarvey Johnston was
away from three meetings due to his absence from the State in connection
with the Antarctic Expedition, and was in the interior of Australia during
the August meeting; Mr. Ralph W. Segnit was on official duty in the North
during the July meeting; and Sir Joseph C. Verco was prevented from
attending for health reasons.
T.. Kerra Warp, President.
Raten W. Seanit, Secrelary.
OBITUARY NOTICE.
T. BRAILSFORD ROBERTSON, D.Sc., Ph.D.
Thorburn Brailsford Robertson died on January 18 of this year. His
death was a sacrifice to the spirit of devotion to his duty, which animated his
whole life.
Confined to his home at Mount Lofty by an attack of influenza, he
insisted—despite all the urging which affection and solicitude could bring to
dissuade—in motoring to Adelaide to give his personal attention to the pro-
193
gtess of an extraction which he had put in train prior to his illness. The
temperature on that day was 106° in the shade. Pneumonia supervened, and
later asthma—an enemy of his boyhood’s days. Every effort was made to
save him, even to the extent of flooding the whole of the sick-room with
oxygen, but all to no avail.
The only portion of Robertson’s life story with which the writer has
direct acquaintance is that during which he held the Chair of Physiology and
Biochemistry at the Adelaide University, For the remainder, he owes his
information to numerous press notices and to conversations held with his old
friends and associates,
Brailsford Robertson was born in Edinburgh in 1884, but came with his
parents to South Australia at the age of ten. His early education was received
from private tuition and at Miss Stanton’s private school at Glenelg. Inci-
dentally, he was severely critical of modern methods of education, and was
fond of quoting a saying: “By education genius is turned into mediocrity.”
He entered upon the Science course at Adelaide University in 1902. I have
been told and can well believe that, not having the necessary qualification
for matriculation at that date, viz., a pass in either Latin or Greek, he began
upon the study of the latter language three weeks before the date of the
examination, in which he triumphantly acquitted himself. This may, perhaps,
in part explain the contempt which he often expressed—not indeed for a
knowledge of foreign languages—ancient or modern—but for that deplorable
ineptitude in their use which rewards the schoolboy’s strenuous struggle of
several years with their grammatical forms and syntatical irregularities,
Robertson’s objective from the outset appears to have been the study of
biological science. But he told me once that early in his student days he
came to the conviction that little progress in any attack on the fundamental
problems of the phenomena of life could be successful unless founded upon
the conceptions and laws of the basic sciences: mathematics, physics, and
chemistry. This conviction it was which, after graduating at Adelaide with
first-class honours in physiology, took him to the University of California,
there to sit at the feet of the great physiologist and biochemist, Jacques Loeb,
whose recent success in artificially fertilising the ova of sea-urchins had
attracted world-wide attention.
Robertson’s ability was evidently not lost upon his teachers at Berkeley,
for immediately after graduating as Ph.D, in 1907 he was appointed an assist-
ant professor of chemistry, and later in the Same year to the same rank in the
department of physiology. While teaching at California he carried out
experimental researches on the functions and biochemistry of the pituitary
gland. This work resulted in the discovery of a substance, extractable from
the gland, which had a remarkably powerful stimulating action on the growth
of tissues. Robertson gave this extract the name of “Tethelin.”
In 1910 Robertson paid a short visit to South Australia and married then
Miss Jane Winifred Stirling, third daughter of Sir Edward Stirling,
Tn 1918 he accepted the offer of the Chair of Biochemistry at the Univer-
sity of Toronto, and in the following year, on the demise of his old chief, he
was invited by the Council of Adelaide University to succeed him in the
Chair of Physiology. The contrast between the ample facilities made for the
teaching of the biological sciences in American Universities and the meagre-
ness of the provision made for the same end at Adelaide must, I think, have
impressed Robertson very acutely, and he lost no time in urging upon the
Council the necessity for a new laboratory and a re-organisation and increase
of the teaching staff. He had his own peculiar and effective way of getting
what he wanted. Within a year he had secured from the University Council
194
a promise to erect a new building for physiology and biochemistry, and
towards the expense of its erection a very handsome monetary contribution
from the heirs of the late John Darling. The “Darling Building” for the
mnedical sciences was completed in 1922. Robertson’s genius for detail—with-
out the closest attention to which, as Napoleon once said, no project can
sticceed—is to be seen in a hundred features of the internal design and fittings
of this fine laboratory. Here he began his long series of experiments on the
influence of various supplementary food factors on the growth of mice, breed-
ing for that purpose a special strain of white mice.
Mainly by Robertson’s personal efforts a sum of no less than £7,000 was
raised by private subscription from public-spirited citizens of South Australia
to provide the necessary financial support for this experimental work. This
sum now constitutes the Animal Products Research Foundation of the
University of Adelaide. One very tangible return for this benefaction was
made when immediately after the discovery of the “Insulin” treatment for
diabetes thousands of doscs of this extract were prepared for the use of
sufferers in South Australia.
He carried on concurrently with this work and, of course, with his teach-
ing duties likewise, various other experimental investigations, mainly on the
problems of growth of unicellular organisms. I am not competent to comment
critically on the value or importance of the results obtained from the point
of view of a biologist, but speaking as a physicist 1 would say that the dis-
covery of the identity—or at least close similarity—of the law of growth both
for unicellular and for polycellular organisms with the law of progress of an
autocatalytic chemical re-action must be a fact of fundamental significance in
biology. Yet Robertson was aiming, as he disclosed to me in our not infre-
quent discussions about his work, at a much deeper probing into the nature
of vital processes. He realised that neither dictetic nor ordinary environmental
influences do, as a rule, penetrate the very citadel of life—the nucleus of the
cell__and I recollect a long discussion, prior to my visit to England in 1927,
on the question of the possibility and of the technique of making an attack
on this impregnable citadel by the agency of the radiations from radium or
other radio-active substances. How sound his intuition was in selecting such
4 line of attack has since been demonstrated by the discovery by American
geneticists, that the number of mutations in the offspring of a species of
fruit-fly (for example) can be enormously increased by irradiation of the eggs
with X-rays of gamma-rays. In 1927, however, the current of Robertson's
scientific activity was turned into a new channel hy his acceptance of an offer
from the Commonwealth Council of Scientific and Industrial Research to
become chief of a department of Animal Nutrition. Under his direction a
laboratory was erected on the University grounds facing Victoria Drive, and
here, with the help of a small band of assistants, he planned and inaugurated
a plan of experimental work in the ficld and in the laboratory. ‘The final
objective of this work is to augment the wealth which Australia derives from
the sheep-breeding industry, but Robertson rightly insisted that this result
would be most surely and effectively reached by a broad scientific inquiry into
the relations which exist between the various dietetic factors and the growth
of the animal or the quantity and quality of its wool. On these lines the work
has been proceeding, and already results have been obtained which testify
to the soundness of his views and indicate the possibility of large economic
returns.
Robertson’s interests were by no means confined to the bounds of his
special science. He read widely, though eclectically, both in scientific and
imaginative literature. Such a book as Upton Sinclair's “Arrowsmith,” in
which the commercialism sometimes associated with scientific research in
195
America is scathingly arraigned, gave him huge delight, and one of his latest
essays published in the “Hibbert Journal” deals trenchantly with the same
theme. *
Robertson’s published works, in addition to the very numerous papers
descriptive of his experimental researches, include text books on “The
Physical Chemistry of the Proteins” and “The Principles of Biochemistry.”
He took an active part in the social life of the University, and was instru-
mental in founding the Graduates’ Association, the University Club, and the
Medical Sciences Club. The “Australian Journal of Experimental Biology
and Medical Science,” which serves as the organ of publication for all Aus-
tralian workers in this field, was established under the aegis of this last body.
In 1926 Robertson was honoured by election to the Reale Accademia
Nazionale of Italy.
“His life was gentle and the elements
So mixed in him that Nature might stand up
And say to all the world, ‘This was a man!”
KERR GRANT,
THE SIR JOSEPH VERCO MEDAL.
The Council, on August 23, 1928, having resolved to recommend to the
Fellows of the Society that a medal should be founded to give honorary distinction
for scientific research, and that it should be designated the Sir Joseph Verco
Medal, was submitted to the Society at the evening mecting of October 11, 1928,
and at a later meeting, held on November 8, 1928, when the recommendation of
the Council was confirmed on the following terms :—
REGULATIONS,
XI.—The medal shall be of bronze, and shall be known as the Sir Joseph
Verco Medal, in recognition of the important service that gentleman has
rendered to the Royal Society of South Australia. On the obverse side of
the medal shall be these words: ‘The Sir Joseph Verco Medal of
the Royal Society of South Australia,’ surrounding the modelled
portrait of Sir Joseph Verco, while on the reverse’ side of the medal thcre
shall be a surrounding wreath of eucalypt, with the words: ‘Awarded
BOE ants Me hdl sig a geigamectannin Bie S8O rd ananneoall le ea Be for Research in Science,’ the
name of the recipient, and the year of the award. The Council shall select
the person to whom it is suggested that the medal shall be awarded, and
that name shall be submitted to the Fellows at an Ordinary Meeting
to confirm, or otherwise, the selection of the Council, by ballot or show
of hands. The medal shall be awarded for distinguished scientific work
published by a Member of the Royal Society of South Australia.”
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THE ENDOWMENT AND SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH FUND.
1902.-On the motion of the late Samuel Dixon it was resolved that steps
be taken for the incorporation of the Society and the establishment of an
Endowment and Scientific Research Fund. Vol. xxvi., pp. 327-8.
1903,—-The incorporation of the Society was duly effected and announced.
Vol. xxvii., pp. 314-5.
1905.—’The President (Dr. J. C. Verco) offered to give £1,000 to the Fund
on certain conditions. Vol. xxix., p. 339.
1929.—The following are particulars of the contributions received and other
sources of revenue in support of the F und up to date :—
SUMMARY OF THE ENDOWMENT FUND.
(Capital... .. £4,069 6s. 10d.)
Contributions.
Donations—
£ 6s aé&s da £ 8 ad
1908, Dr. J. C. Verco at 1,000 0 OU
1908, Thomas Scarfe sor 1,000 0 0
1911, Dr. Verco ier cs 150 0 0
1913, Dr. Verco _ Ae 120 0 0
Mrs. Ellen Peterswald a 100 0 0
Small Sums 6 0 0
—__-—— 2,376 0 0
Bequests—
1917, R. Barr Smith = 1,005 16 8
1920, Sir Edwin Smith ning 200 0
— 1,205 16 8
Life Members’ Subscriptions .... me .. 225 0 0
*Interest and Discounts Led tM .. 156 3 10
From Current Account sy ie ... 106
4
-4,069 6 10
*Interest on investments has, in the main, been transferred to general revenue
for the publication of scientific papers. See Balance-sheets.
GRANTS MADE IN AID OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH.
1916, G. H. Hardy, “Investigations into the Flight of Birds” 2 15 0 0
1916, Miss H. A. Rennie, “Biology of Lobelia gibbosa” _ ek _ 22 0
1921, F. R. Marston, “Possibility of obtaining from Azine precipitate
samples of pure Protcolytic Enzymes”... 30 0 0
1921, Prof. Wood Jones, “Investigations of the Fauna and Flora ot Nayts
Archipelago”... sf ae Bh ds, ae on ae Pie 4416 7
199
DONATIONS TO THE LIBRARY
FOR THE YEAR ENDED SEPTEMBER 30, 1930,
TRANSACTIONS, JouRNALS, REPORTS, ETC.,
presented by the respective governments, societies, and editors,
AUSTRALIA.
AUSTRALASIAN ANTARCTIC Expepition, 1911-14, Sci, rep., s. C., v. 6, pt. 7.
AUSTRALASIAN INSTITUTE OF MINING, Proc., no. 67-76. Melb,
AustraLia. Bureau of Census and Statistics. Yearbook, no. 22, 1929,
CSIR. Bull. 42-44, Journ., v. 3, no. 1-2. Pamph. 13-17. Rep. 3.
AUSTRALIAN JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL Brorocy, v. 7. Adel. 1930,
AUSTRALIAN SCIENCE ABSTRACTS, v. 9, no. 1-3. Syd. 1929-30,
AUSTRALIAN VETERINARY ASSOCIATION. Journ., v. 5; 6, no, 1-2. Syd.
INTERSTATE CONFERENCE ON ARTESIAN Water, no, 5. Report, Syd. 1928,
SOUTH AUSTRALIA.
Pustic Liprary, Museum, Anp Art GALLERY or S.A. Records, v. 4, no. 2.
Roya GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF A/sta (S.A. Br.) Proc., v. 30, 1928-29.
Soutu AustraLia. Botanic Garden. Report, 1928-29, Adel.
Dept. of Mines. Review, no. 50-51. Geol. survey bull., no. 14.
Woods and Forests Dept. Report, 1929. Adel.
SouTH AusrraLian Institures Journat, v.18, Adel. 1929-30,
SoutH AUSTRALIAN Naturatist, v. 11, no. 1-3. Adel. 1929-30,
SOUTH AUSTRALIAN ORNITITOLOGIST, v. 10, pt. 5-7, Adel. 1929-30,
NEW SOUTH WALES.
AUSTRALIAN Museum. Magazine, v. 4, no. 1-3. Mem., v. 5, pt. 3-4. Records,
v. 16, no. 8; 17, no, 6-9. Syd. 1929-30,
Linnean Society or N.S.W. Proc., v. 94, pt. 4-6; 55, pt. 1-3. Syd. 1929-30.
Maren, J. H. Revision of genus Eucalyptus, pt. 71-72. Index to v. 7.
New Sourm Watss. Dept. of Agric. Gazette, v. 41, Vet. research, 1927-28.
Dept. of Mines, Ann. rep., 1929, Mineral resources, no. 35, Syd.
Public Library, Report, 1929, Syd, 1930,
Royar Soctery or N.S.W. Journ, and proc., v. 63, 1929, Syd.
Royat Zoor. Socrery or N.S.W. Australian zoologist, v. 6, pt. 2-3. Syd.
SypNeEy University. Cal., 1930. Cancer research, v. 2, no. 1-2, Sci. papers, v. 2.
TECHNOLOGICAL Museum. Bull, 1-5, 9-10, 13-15. Educ. ser., no. 24-26,
QUEENSLAND.
(QUEENSLAND. Dept of Agriculture. Journ., v. 32-33. Brisb. 1929-30,
Geological Survey. Publication, no. 241, 278. Brisb.
QUEENSLAND MusEuM. Mem., v. 10, pt. 1. Brisb. 1930.
Roya Society or QuEENSLAND, Proc., v. 41. Brisb. 1929,
TASMANIA.
Royar Society or TASMANIA. Proc., 1929, Hobart, 1930.
VICTORIA,
Royat Society of Vicrortia. Proc., v. 42, pt. 1-2. Melb. 1929-30.
Victoria, Dept. of Agriculture. Journ., v. 28. Melb. 1930,
Geological Survey. Bull, no. 52. Melb. 1929,
VICTORIAN NATURALIST, v. 46, no. 6-12; 47, no. 1-5. Melb. 1928-29,
200
WESTERN AUSTRALIA.
RovaL Society or W.A. Journ., v. 15, 1928-29. Perth.
Western AustrALiA. Dept. of Agriculture. Journ., v. 6; 7, no. 1. 1929-30.
Geological Survey. Bull., no. 94. Report, 1928, Perth,
ENGLAND.
CAMBRIDGE PINILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY. Proc. in biol. sci., v. 5. 1929-30.
Campripcr Untverstry. Solar Physics Observatory, Report, 1928-29,
ConcHoLocrcaL Society or GT, BRITALN. Journ, v. 18, no. 12; 19, no. 2.
Dove Martne Lanoratory. Report, 1928-29, Cullercoats.
ENTOMOLOGICAL Society. Proc., v. 4. ‘rans., v. 77; 78, pt. 1. Lond. 1929-30.
GroLtocicaL Socrery oF Lonpon, Journ., v. 85-86. 1929-30.
Gro.ocists’ AssocraTion. Proc., Vv. 40; 41, pt. 1.) Lond. 1929-30.
Hit Museum. Bull. v. 3, no. 3-4: 4, no. 1. Witley. 1929-30,
IMPERIAL InstTrruTr. Bull, v. 27, no. 3-4; 28, no. 1-2. Report, 1929.
IMPERIAL INSTITUTE OF ENTOMOLOGY. Review, v. 17; 18, pt. 1-7. Lond.
LINNEAN SocrEty. Journ.: bot., no. 323; zool., no. 250. Proc., 1928-29.
MANcUuESTER LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL Society. Mem., v. 73. 1928-29.
NATIONAL PHYSICAL LARORATORY. Collected researches, v. 21. Rep., 1929.
RovaL Botanic Garpens, Kew. Bull., 1929. Lond. '
Rovat Empire Society, United Empire, v. 20; 21, no. 1-7. Lond. 1929-30.
RovaL GEOGRAPHICAL SocieTy, Journ., v. 74-75. Lond. 1929-30.
Royvat MicroscoPICAL SOCIETY. Journ., 1929, pt. 3-4; 1930, pt. 1-2. Lond.
Rovat Soctety. Proc., A, v. 125-7; B, v. 105-6. Yearbook, 1930. Lond.
Science Musrum. Catalogues and handbooks of Museum. Lond.
ZooLocicaL Museum. Novitates zoologicae, v. 30-35. Tring.
ZOOLOGICAL Society or Lonpon. Proc., 1929, Trans., v. 21, pt. 2, 1930.
SCOTLAND.
EpInBURGH GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY. Trans., v. 12, pt. 2. 1930.
Roya. PuysicaL Soctety or EDINBURGH. Proc., v. 21, pt. 5. 1929.
RovaL Society oF EDINBURGH. Proc., v. 56. Trans., v. 56, pt. 2. 1930.
IRELAND.
Rovat Duntin Society. Proc.: econ, v. 2, no, 25-26; sci., v. 19, no. 9-39,
Rovay IrtsH ACADEMY. Proc., v. 39: A, no. 1-5; B, no. 1-15; C, no. 1-2.
AUSTRIA.
AKAD, DER WISSENSCHAFTEN. Math.-nat. Kl. Sitz., Bd. 139. Anz. 1929,
GEOLOGISCHE BUNDESANSTALT. Verth., 1929, no. 6-12; 1930, 1-5. Wien.
NATURHISTORISCHEN MusEUMS IN Wren. Ann., Ud. 43. 1929.
Zoo.-Bot, GESELLSCHAFT IN WIEN. Verh. Bd. 79, H. 1. 1929.
BELGIUM.
Acap. RoyaLte. Bull. 1929. Mem. 4°, v. 10, £. 1-2; 8°, v. 10. Brux.
Instituts Sotvay. Revue, 1929, no, 3-4; 1930, no. j-2. Brux.
Louvarn University. (ab ad’ Astronomie, Publ. v. 5. 1928.
Muste Roya p’Historre NATURELLE. Mem., no. 37-40. Brux. 1928-9.
Socizr& ROYALE DE BoTANIQUE, Bull., v. 61-62. Brux. 1928-9.
Sociirt RovALE DES SCLENCES DE Lrice. Mém.,, v. 14. 1928.
Sociéré RoyALE DE ZOOLOGIQUE, Ann., v. 59. Brux. 1928.
201
BRAZIL.
Instituto OswaLpo Cruz, Mem., v. 22-23 and suppl. Rio de J.
Onservatorio Nacionat. Ann., 1930, Bull. magnetic, 1927-28. Rio de J.
CANADA.
Canapa. Geol. Survey. Bull.: econ., no. 6; museum, no 60-62. Mem., 155-162.
NatTIonaAL Research Councit or Canapa, Journ, v. 1-2, Ottawa. 1929-30.
Nova Scotran Institute or ScieNcE. Proc., v. 17, pt. 3. Halifax. 1929,
RovaL CANADIAN Insritute. Trans., v. 16, pt. 2; 17, pt. 1. Ottawa. 1928-9.
RovaL Society or CANADA. Proc. and trans., v. 23. Ottawa. 1929.
CHINA.
Cuina. Geological Survey. Mem., 6-7. Palaeont., various pts. 1928-9.
Grotoctcat. Society or Crina. Bull., v. 8, no. 2-4. Peiping. 1929.
NatronaL ResearcH Institute. Geology. Mem., 7-8. Shanghai, 1929.
CZECHO-SLOVAKIA.
ACTA BoTANICA Bouemica, v. 1-8. Praha. 1922-28.
Crarites University. Studies from Plant Phys. Lab., v. 2-3. Prague.
Socteras Entomouocica, Acta, v. 24-26. Praha. 1927-29.
DENMARK.
ConseIL Pero. Int. pour L’EXpPLor. DE LA Mer. Bull.: hydro., 1928; stat., 1927-8.
Faune ichthy., no. 2-4. Rapports 58-65.
Danske NATURHIST. ForENING. Vid. med., Bd. 85-86. Cpng. 1928-9.
KorENHAVN UnrversitTets Zoot. Museum. Publications 60-68, 1929.
K. DANSKE VIDENSE. SELSKAB, Biol.-med., Bd. 8. Math.-fys., Bd. 9-10. Skr.,
naturv. og math., ser. 9, v. 1, no. 3-4. Cpng. 1929-30.
FINLAND.
Finska Vet.-Soc. Bidrag, H. 4-6, 15-17, 20-26, 29-82. Oversigt, 1908-22.
Socretas Entom. Hetstncrors. Not. entom., v. 9, no. 4; 10, no. 1-2, 1929-30.
SocieTas SCIENTIARUM FENNIca. Acta, t. 33-50; ns. t. 1. Arsbok, 1-7.
Com.: biol., t. 1-3; phys.-math., t. 1-4. Helsingfors. 1907-29.
FRANCE,
Mustum NATIONAL D’HistTorRE NATURELLE Bull., 1929; 1930, 1-3. Par.
Soctéré DES SCIENCES NAT, DE L’QueEsT DE LA France, Bull. 8. Nantes.
Socrirt ENToM. DE France, Ann, v, 97-98. Bull. 1929-30. Par.
Socitir& Grou. bE France. Bibliog., 1928. Bull, v. 28. Comte rendu, 1929.
Socrttk LINNKENNE DE NorMaANbIE. Bull., ser. 8, v. 1-2. Caen. 1928-9.
GERMANY.
Bayer. AKAD, DER WISSENSCHAFTEN. Abh. and Sitz., 1929-30. Miin.
BERLIN GESELLSCHAFT FUR ANTHROPOLOGIE. Zeits., 1928; 1929, H. 1-3.
BoraANIsCHEN GARTENS U. Museums. Notizb., no..98-100. Berl. 1929-30.
DeutscHe Entom, GESELLSCHAFT. Zeits., 1929. Mitt., no. 1-5, Berl.
DeutscHe Entom. Museum. Mitt., Bd. 17, no. 6. Berl. 1929.
Feppe, F. Repertorium, etc., Bd. 27; 28, no. 1-5. Berl. 1929-30.
GESELLSCHAFT DER WISSENSCHAFTEN, GOTT. Mitt., 1928-29. Nach., 1929.
GESELLSCHAFT FUR ErpKUNDE. Zecits., 1929; 1930, H. 1-6. Berl.
K. DeutscHE AKAD. DER Narurr. zU Hatie. Leop., Bd. 5-6, 1929-30.
202
NATURFORSCHENDE GESELLSCHAFT zu Frerpurc. Berichte, Bd. 29-30, 1929-30.
NATURHISTORISCHE GESELLSCHAFT, NURNBERG. Abh., Bd. 23-24, 1930.
Prys.-Mep. Gesettscnaor, WOrzeurc. Verh., Bd. 52, H. 2; 53, H. 1,
Preuss. Akap, per Wiss. Phil.-Hist. u. Phys.-Math., Sitz. 1929-30. Berl,
SENCKENBERGISCHE NaTurr.-GrsELtscuart. Berichte, Bd. 60, 1930.
Senckenbergiana, Bd. 11, H. 4-6; 12, H. 1. Frankfiirt, 1929-30.
ZooL. Museum per UniversirAr, Bertin. Mitt., Bd. 15; 16, H. 1-2.
HAWAIIAN ISLANDS.
BisHop Museum. Bull. 66-73. Mem. 11, no. 1-2. Report, 1928.
Hawartaw Entomotocicar Socrery. Proc., v. 7,no. 2. Honolulu. 1929,
HOLLAND.
Muske TeyLer. Archives, v. 6, £.3;7,£.1. Haarlem. 1929.
Riyx’s Herpartum. Mededeel., no. 57-58. Leiden, 1929.
HUNGARY.
Musée Natronat Honerors, Ann., y. 25, 1928. Budapest.
INDIA.
Ixpra. Geological Survey. Mem. 52, pt. 2; 54. Palaeont. Indica, v. 9, no. 2;
10, no, 3; 16. Records, v. 62; 63, pt. 1. Calc. 1929-30.
Zoological Survey, Annual report, 1926-29. Cale.
Inp1an Museum. Mem., v. 9-10. Records, v. 31; 32, pt. 1. Cale. 1929-30,
Mavras GoveRNMENT Museum. Bull., v. 1, pt. 1. Nat. Hist., v. 2, 1929.
Roya Astatac Socizry, Maray Br. Journ., v. 7, pt. 1-2. Singap. 1929.
ITALY,
Lagporatorio pt ENromotocia, Botocna. Bull., v. 2, 1929.
LanoraTorio pi Zoot, GENERALE E AGRARIA. Bull., v. 21-22. Portici.
Museo Crvico pt Srorta pt Genova. Ann., v. 53. Genoa. 1928-30.
SocierA Entom, Irattana. Bull., v. 60-62. Mem., v. 6, f. 2:9, f. 1. Genoa.
SocireTA ITALIANA DI ScreNzE Nat. Atti, v. 68; 69, f. 1. Mem., v. 10, f. 1.
Milan.
SocreTA Toscana pr Screnze Nat. Mem., v. 39. Proc. verb., v. 37. Pisa.
JAPAN,
EARTHQUAKE INvesTIGATION Com, Bull. 11, no. 4. Publ. no, 25. Tokyo. 1930.
ImprrtaL AcaveMyY or Toxyo. Proc., v. 5; 6, no. 1-4. 1929-30.
ImpertaL University or Toxyo, Faculty of Science. Journ., S. 1, v. 1-2. S. 2,
v. 2, pt. 9; v. 3, pt. 1-2. S.3,v.2, pt. 3. S.4,v. 2, pt. 2.
InsTITUTE or Prrys. AND CHEM. Rrsmarcu. Bull, v. 8. Sci. papers 200-259.
Kvoro Imp. Untv. Sci. mem., A y. 12; 13, no. 1-3. B v. 5, no. 1-2.
NaTIoNAL Researcit Councrt. .Jap. journ.; astron., v. 7, no. 1-3; bot., v. 4;
9, no. 1; chem., v. 4, no. 1; engin., v. 7; geol., v. 7; math., v. 6, no. 4;
7,no. 1; phys., v. 5; zool., v. 2; 3, no. 1-2. Tokyo. 1929-30,
Sarto Gratirupe Founpation. Reprint, no. 4, 6, 7. Report, no. 5. Sendai.
Tarnoxu Imp. Univ. Sci. and Agric. Mem., v. 1-2.
Tonoku Imp. Univ. Sci. rep.,-s. 1, v. 18; 19, no. 1-2; s. 2, v. 14, no. 1; s. 3, v. 3,
no. 3. Tech. rep., v. 8, 9, no. 1-2, Math. journ., v. 31-32,
203
MEXICO.
Insriruto GEoLocico DE Mexico. An., v. 3. Bull, no. 46, 48.
SocrepaD CIENTIFICA “ANTONIO ALZATE.” Mem., v. 49. Mexico. 1928.
NEW ZEALAND.
CANTERBURY MusEuM. Records, v. 3, no. 4. Christchurch. 1930.
New Zeatanp. C.S.1.R, Journ., v. 11, no. 3-6; 12, no. 1. Weil. 1929-30.
Dominion Laboratory. Annual report, no. 62, Well. 1929,
Geological Survey. Annual report, no. 23. Well, 1929.
New Zeavcanp Institute. Trans., v. 6, pt. 2-4; 61, pt. 1. Well. 1929-30.
NORWAY.
BEercENsS Museum. Aarsb., 1928-29. Aarb., 1929, H. 2; 1930, H. 1.
K. Norske VipENSK. SELSKABS. Aarsb., 1928. Forh., Bd. 2. Skr. 1929.
STAVANGER Museum. Aarshefte, 1925-28.
Tromso Museum. Arsb., 1926-28. Arsh., 1926. Skr., v. 1, no. 7; v. 2.
PHILIPPINE ISLANDS.
BureEAu oF Science. Journ., v. 40-42; 43, no. 1. Manila. 1929-30,
POLAND.
Lwow University. Institut de Géophysique. Com., no. 43-56. 1928-29.
Société BoraNIQur DE PoLoGne. Actes, v. 6; 7, no. 1. Warsaw. 1929-30.
Socrit& PoLonatse DES NATURALISTES. “Kosmos,” bull., 1929. Lwow.
RUSSIA,
Acab. DES SCIENCES. Bull., 1929, no. 4-10. Phys.-math. mem., 1929, no. 3-8.
Comité GEOLOGIQUE. Bulletins and memoirs, 1928-30. Leningrad.
SPAIN.
ReaL ACAD. DE CIENCIAS Y ARTES. Bull. 6, no. 1. Mem. 22, no. 1. Bare.
SWEDEN.
GroLtocisKA FORENINGEN. Forh., Bd. 51; 52, H. 1-2. Stockholm. 1929-30.
SWITZERIAND.
Groc.-ETHNOG, GESELLSCHAFT IN ZUrtcH. Erz., no. 1. Mitt., Bd. 29.
NATURFORSCHENDE GESELLSCHAFT IN BASEL. Verh., Bd, 40, 1929,
NATURFORSCHENDE GESELLSCHAFT IN ZURIcH. Viert., 1929.
SociETE DE PHysigueE et dD’ Hist. Nat. Comte rendu, v. 46-47, Mem., v. 40, f. 4.
Socikte NEUCHATELGISE DES SCIENCES NATURELLES, Bull. 53-54, 1928-29.
SocIETE VAUDOISE DES Scr. Nat. Buil. 224. Mem. 3, no. 4-6. Lausanne.
UNION OF SOUTH AFRICA,
ALBANY Museum. Records, v. 3, pt. 5. Grahamstown. 1927.
GEOLOGICAL SocieTy oF Sourn Arrica, Trans. and proc., 1929. Johannesb.
Roya Socrety or Sourm Arrica, Trans., v. 18, pt. 3. Cape Town. 1929.
S.A, Assoc, FoR ADVANCEMENT OF Science, Journ., 1929. Cape Town.
S.A. Museum, Ann., v. 28, pt. 1-2; 29, pt. 1. Report, 1929. Cape Town.
204
UNITED STATES.
AMERICAN Acab. OF ARTS AND SciENCES. Proc., v. 64, no. 1-6. Bost. 1929.
AMERICAN Assoc. FOR ADVANCEMENT OF ScIENCE. Proc., 1925-29. Wash.
AMERICAN CHEMICAL Society, Journ., v. 52, no, 1-7. Easton, Pa. 1930.
AMERICAN GEOGRAPHICAL Society. Review, v. 19; 20, pt. 1-3. NY. 1929-30,
American Mricroscopicat Sociery. Trans., y. 48-49, Urbana, Il. 1929-30.
AMERICAN Museum or Nar. Hist. Anthrop., v.-30, pt. 6-7; 31, pt. 2-3. Nat.
Hist., v. 30, no. 1-3, Novit., 367-427. Report, 1928-29. N.Y,
AMERICAN PHILosopHicaL Society. Proc., v. 68-69. Trans., v. 23, pt. 1.
ARNOLD ARBORETUM, Journ., vy. 11, no. 1-3, Camb., Mass. 1930,
BroocicaL Survey or Mr. Desert Recron, Me, Fishes, pt. 3. Phil. 1929.
Brookiyn INstITUTE or Arts AND SCIENCES. Museum qrly., v. 17, 1930.
CaLirornia, Mines. Bull, 102. Report 26. Sacramento, "1930.
CaL. ACADEMY oF ScteNcrs. Proc., v. 17, no. 11-12; 18, no. 4-16. San. Fran.
Cat. University. Mem. 4. Pub. in arch., bot., entom., geol., and zool.
Agric. Exp, Station Technical papers, various. Berkeley.
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON. Yearbook, no. 28. 1929.
Conn. Acap. or Arts AND ScIENCES. Trans., v. 30, pp. 159-510. New Haven.
Conn, GEoLocicaL anp Nat. Hist. Survey. Bull. 45-47. Hartford. 1927-9.
Cornett University. Agric. Exp, Station. Bull. 475-500. Mem, 124-6.
Dentson University, Sei. Lab. Journ., v. 24, no. 6-13; 25, no. 1-3. Granv., O.
Fretp Musrum. Publ.: bot., v. 4, no. 6-9; 7, no, 1 ; leaflet, 14. Geol., v. 5, no. 2;
leaflet, 11-12, Zool., v. 13; 17, no, 2-5; 18, no. 1. Chic.
FRANKLIN InstiruTe. Journ., v, 209; 210, no. 1. Yearbook, 1928-9, Phil.
Harvarp CoLtece Museum. Bull. 69; 70, no. 1-4. Report, 1928-29,
Iuttnots. State Lab. Nat. Hist, Bull., v. 18, art. 1-2. Urbana, 1929.
InprIaNA ACADEMY oF ScrENcE. Proc., 1928. Indianapolis. 1929,
Jouns Hopkins University. Studies, v. 47-48. Balt. 1928-29.
Liprary OF Coneress, Report, 1928-29, Wash.
Marine Biotocicat Las. Bull. 57-58. Wood’s IIole, Mass. 1930.
Micuican Untv. Papers of Acad. of Sci, 11-12. Palaeont. mem., v. 2.
Missouri Boranic GarpeN. Ann., v. 17, pt. 1-2. Bull. 18. St. Louis. 1930.
NaTionaL ACADEMY oF ScIENCESs. Proc., v. 16. Wash. 1930.
Nationa GrocrapHic Society. Magazine, v. 56-58. Wash. 1929-30.
New York AcAbemy oF Sciences. Annals, v. 31, pp. 1-186. 1929-30.
New York Pusrre Lrprary. Bull. v. 33; 34, no. 1-8. 1929-30.
New York Stare Museum. Bull. 280-84. Handbook, no, 9. Albany. 1930.
New York Zoot, Soc. Zoologica, v. 9, no. 8-10; 11, no. 3; 12, no, 1-2.
Outo Universiry. Journ. of science, v. 30, no. 1-3. Columbus. 1930.
SAN Disco Society or Nat. Hist, Trans., v. 5, no, 16-20; 6, no. 1-3. 1929-30.
SMITHSONIAN LNsriTuTION. Annual report, 1928. Wash.
Bureau of American Ethnology. Bull., no. 88, 90-91, 93. 1929-30.
STANFORD University. Biological sciences, v. 5, no. 3; 6, no. 1.
U.S. Derr. or Aaric. Exp. st. rec., v. 61-62. Journ., v. 39-40, NA. fauna,
no. 52. Yearbook, 1930, Various bull. and leaflets,
U.S. GroLocicaL Survey. Report 50. Various bull,, papers, etc. Wash.
U.S. Nationa, Museum, Proc., v. 75, and various bulletins, etc. Wash.
Wacner Institute or Science. Bull., v. 4. Philad.
WASHINGTON SraTe CottEcre. Research studics, v.1;2,no. 1. Pullman, 1929-30,
WasuINCTON University, St. Louts. Studies: social, no. 1; technol., no, 1-3.
YALE UNIversiry. Bingham Oceanog, Coll. Bull., v. 3, art. 4
URUGUAY.
Museo pe Hist. Nat. DE Montrevipeo. Anales, v. 3, pt. 1. 1929,
205
ROYAL SOCIETY OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA
(INCORPORATED).
SECTION II]—PAPERS.
(Approved October 8, 1923.)
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206
ROYAL SOCIETY OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA
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4, Diphthongs are not allowed; each vowel must be written separately, as, for
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- Note regarding Abstracts—YVhe author is requested to supply two brief
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207
LIST OF FELLOWS, MEMBERS, ETC.
AS EXISTING ON SEPTEMBER 30, 1930.
Those marked with an asterisk (*) have contributed papers published in the Society's
Transactions. Those marked with a dagger (+) are Life Members.
Any change in address or any other changes should be notified to the Secretary.
Note.—The publications of the Society will not be sent to those whose subscriptions
are in arrear.
Date of
Election. Honorary FEettows.
1910. *Bracc, Srr W. H., K.B.E, M.A, D.Sc. F.R.S., Director of the Royal Institution,
Albemarle Street, London (Fellow 1886).
1926. *CHapMan, F,, ALS. National Museum. Melbourne.
1897, *Davin, Sr T. W. Epceworto, K.B.E, C.M.G., D.S.0O., B.A. D.Sc, F.R.S.
E.G. S., Emeritus Professor of Geology, University of Sydney, Cotingah, Sherbroke
Road, Hornsby, N.S.W.
1898. *MEVRICK, E. T.. B.A, FE.R.S., F.Z.S., Thornhanger, Marlborough, Wilts, England.
1894. *Wirson, J. T., M. D., Ch, Professor of Anatomy, Cambridge University, England.
FELLOWS.
1926. Apert, L. M. Chapman Camp, British Columbia.
1925, ADEY, W. J., 32 High Street, Burnside, S.A.
1927. * ALDERMAN, "A. R., M.Sc., EGS. West Terrace, Kensington Gardens, S.A.
1929, ANGEL Frank M., Box 1327G, GP. O., Adelaide.
1895. +*AsuBy, Epwin, F.LS., M.B.O. U., Blackwood, S.A-—Council, 1900-19; Vice-
President, 1919-21.
1917. Barey, J. FE, Director Botanic Gardens, S.A—Council, 1928-.
1902. *BaAKeER, W. H. , King’s Park, S.A.
1926. Beck, B. B., 127 Fullarton Road, Myrtle Bank, S.A.
1928. Best, R. j., "M. Se, AAC, Waite Agricultural Research Institute, Glen Osmond.
1928. *BEst, Mrs. R. J., B.Sc., 23 ‘Ailsa Street, Fullarton Estate.
1930. Birks, W. R., B.Sc. Principal, Roseworthy Agricultural College.
1907. *Brack, J. M., 82 Brougham Place, North Adelaide—Sir Joseph Verco Medal, 1930;
Council, 1927-.
1924. Browne, J. W., B.Ch., 169 North Terrace, Adelaide.
1916. *BuLt, LIONEL B, D.VSc., Laboratory, ‘Adelaide Hospital. .
1923, Burnon, Roy S.. B. Sc., University of Adelaide.
1921. Burton, R. J. Belair.
1922, *Camppet, T. D., D.D.Sc., Dental Dept., Adclaide Hospital, Frome Road, Adelaide—
Council, 1928-.
1924, Cavenacu-Marnwarinc, W. R., M.B., B.S., 207 North Terrace.
1907. *CuarmMan, R. W., C.M.G., M.A. B.C.E., F.R.A.S., Professor of Engineering and
Mechanics, University, Adelaide—Couneil, 1914-22.
1904. CurisTIE, W,, c/o Griffiths Bros., Hindmarsh Square, Adelaide.
1929. Curistiz, W., M.B., B.S., Education Department, Flinders Street, Adelaide.
1895. *CLELAND, Joun B., M_D., Professor of Pathology, University, Adelaide—Council,
1921- 26: President, 1927- 28; Vice-President, 1926-27.
1930. CoLLtns, F. V,, B.VSc., Green Road, Woodville.
1930. CorguHotn, T. T., M.Se., University, Adelaide.
1907. *Cooxr, W. T., D.Sc., Lecturer, University of Adelaide.
1929. Corron, Bernarp C., S.A. Museum, Adelaide.
1924. nz Cresprany, C, T. C., D.S.0., M.D., 219 North Terrace, Adelaide.
1916. Darutnc, H. G., Franklin Street, Adelaide.
1929. Davipson, James, D.Sc., Waite Agricultural Research Institute, Glen Osmond.
1928. Davies, J. G., B.Sc., Ph. D., Waite Agricultural Research Institute, Glen Osmond.
1927, *Davies, Prof. E. Harotp, Mus.Doc., The University, Adelaide.
1927. Dawson, Bernarn, M.D., F.R.C.S., 8 King William Street, Adelaide.
1930. Dix, FE. V., Glynde Road, Firle.
1915. *Dopp, Aran P., Prickly Pear Laboratory, Sherwood, Brisbane.
1921, Dutton, G. H., B.Sc., Agricultural High School, Murray Bridge.
1911. Dutton, H. H., M.A. (Oxon,), Antaby.
1902. *Epguist, A. G., 19 Farrell Street, Glenelg.
1918. *Exston, A. H., F.E.S.. “Liandyssil,” Aldgate.
Enerann, H. N., B.Sc., Commonwealth Research Station, Griffith, N.S.W.
208
Date of
Election.
1917. *Fenner, Cuas. A. E., D.Sc, 42 Alexander Avenue, Rose Park—Rep.-Governor,
1929-; Council, 1925-28; President, 1930-; Vice-President, 1928-30; Secretary,
1924-25
1927, *Fintayson, H. H., The University of Adelaide.
1929, Freney, M. Rapwaer, 14 Holden Street, Kensington Park.
1929. Freney, M. Ricuarp, 14 Holden Strect, Kensington Park.
1929, Fricke, Everarp F. $,, B.Ag.Sc., Waite Agricultural Research Institute, Glen Osmond.
1923. *Fry, H. K., D.S.0., M.B., B.S., B.Se., Glen Osmond Road, Parkside.
1930. Garrett, 5. D., B.A.. Waite Agricultural Research Institute, Glen Osmond.
1919. ¢GLastonnury, O. A., Adelaide Cement Co., Brookman Buildings, Grenfell Street.
1923. Grover, C. J. R., Stanley Street, North Adelaide.
1927. Goprrey, F. K., Robert Street, Payncham, S.A.
1904. Gorpon, Davin, 72 Third Avenue, St. Peters.
1925. {Gossg, J. H., 31 Grenfell Street, Adelaide.
1880. *Goyper, GrorcE, A.M., B.Sc., F.G.S., 232 East Terrace, Adelaide. :
1910. *Grant, Kerr, M.Sc., Professor of Physics, University, Adclaide—Council, 1912-15.
1904, Grirritu, H., Hove, Brighton.
1916. Hacxetr, W. Cuampton, 35 Dequetteville Terrace, Kent Town.
1927, *Hacxert, Dr. C. J., 196 Prospect Road, Prospect, S.A.
1922. *Hare, H. M., The Curator, S.A. Museum, Adelaide.
1930. Hart, F. J., Adelaide Electric Supply Coy., Ltd., Adelaide.
1922. *Ham, WitLiAM, F.R.E.S:, Teachers’ College, Kintore Avenue, Adelaide.
1916, Hancock, H. Lirson, A.M.LCE. M.LM.M., A.Am.1.M.E,, Bewdley, 66 Beresford
Road, Bellevue Hill, Rose Bay, Sydney.
1924. Hawker, Captain C. A. S., M.HLR., M.A., North Bungaree, via Yacka, South Australia.
1896. Hawker, E. W., M.A. LL.B. F.C.S., East Bungaree, Clare.
1928. Hawker, M, S., Adelaide Club, North Terrace.
1923. Hitt, Florence McCoy M., B.S., M.D., University of Adelaide.
1927, Hornen, E. W., B.Sc., Dequetteville Terrace, Kent Town, S.A.
1929. Hosxinc, Joun W., 77 Sydenham Road, Norwood.
1930. Hosxrne, J. S., B.Sc., Waite Agricultural Research Institute, Glen Osmond.
1924. *Hossrecp, Paut S., M.Sc., Rabaul, Territory of New Guinea,
. 1883. *Howcuin, Proressor Watter, F.G.S., “Stonycroft,’ Goodwood East—Sir Joseph
Verco Medal, 1929; Rep.-Governor, 1901-22; Council, 1883-84, 1887-89, 1890-94,
1902-; President, 1894-96; Vice-President, 1884-87, 1889-90, 1896-1902; Editor,
1883-88, 1893-94, 1895-96, 1901-.
1928. Hurcomer, Miss J. C., 95 Unley Road, New Parkside.
1928. Irovtv, Percy, Kurralta, Burnside.
1918. *Istnc, Ernest H., c/o Superintendent’s Office, S.A. Railways, Adelaide.
1912, ‘*Jacx, R. L, B.E, D.Sc, F.G.S., Assistant Government Geologist, Adelaide.
1893. James, THomas, M.R.C.S., 9 Watson Avenue, Rose Park.
1918. *Jennison, Rev. J. C., 7 Frew Strect, Fullarton Estate.
1910. *Jounson, E. A.. M.D., M.R.C.S., Town Hall, Adelaide.
1921. *Jounsron, Proressor T., Harvey, M.A., D.Sc., University, Adelaide—Rep.-Governor,
1927-29;; Council, 1926-28; Vice-President, 1928-.
1929, Jomnston, W. C., Government Agricultural Tnspector, Riverton.
1920. *jones, Proressor F. Woon, M.B., B.S., M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P. D.Sc, F.R.S., University,
Melbourne—Rep.-Governor, 1922-27; Council, 1921-25: President, 1926-27; Vice-
President, 1925-26.
1926. Jurrus, Epwarp, Conservator of Forests, Adelaide.
1918. Kimper, W. J., 28 Second Avenue, Joslin.
1929. Taurman, C. W., 75 Rundle Street, Adelaide.
1915. *Lauriz, D. F., Agricultural Department, Victoria Square.
1897, *Lra, A. M., F.E.S., S.A. Museum, Adelaide-—Couneil, 1923-24, 1925-,
1884. Lenvon, A. A.. M.D., M.R.CS., 66 Brougham Place, North Adelaide.
1922. Tunpon, Guy A. M.B., B.S., M.R.C.P., North Terrace.
1925. Lewis, A., M.B., B.S., Adelaide Hospital.
1930. Louwycx, Rev, N, H., The Rectory, Yankalilla.
1922, *Mavican, C. T., M.A.. B.S.c., F.G.S., University of Adelaide—Council, 1930-.
1923. Marswatr, J. C.. Darrock, Payneham.
1928. Magcrairy, B. J.. The University, Adelaide.
1929. Martin, F, C,, B.A., Technical High School, Thebarton.
1905. *Mawson, Str Dovaras, D.Sc., B.E., F-R.S., Professor of Geology, University, Adclaide
—President, 1924-25; Vice-President, 1923-24, 1925-26.
1919. Mayo, Herren M., M.D,, 47 Melbourne Street, North Adelaide.
Hts Mayo, Herzert, K.C, LL.B., Brookman Buildings, Grenfell Street.
McFapyen, Miss A. I. B.Sc., Walford House School, Unley.
209
Date ot
Election,
1929. McLaucuutn, Eucenr, M.B., B.S., M.R.C.P., Adelaide Hospital.
1907. Metrosz, Roserr T., Mount Pleasant.
1928. Metvitte, L. G., B.Ec., FLA, Professor of Econotics, University of Adelaide,
Adelaide.
1924. Messent, P. S., M.B., B.S., 192 North Terrace.
1925. }+MuircHELt, Professor Sir WitrtAm, K.C.M.G., M.A., D.Sc., The University, Adelaide.
1930. Mitcuett, Miss U. H,, B.Sc, Presbyterian Girls’ College, Glen Osmond.
1926. Moorr, A. P. R., D.D.Se., 193 North Terrace, Adelaide.
1897. *Morcan, A. M., M.B., Ch.B., 215 Brougham Place, North Adelaide.
1924. Morrson, A. J., Deputy Town Clerk, Town Hall, Adelaide,
1930. Morris, L. G., Beehive Buildings, King William Street, Adelaide.
1926. *Mountrorn, C. P., Postal Workshops, Adelaide.
1921, Movutpen, Owen M., M.B., B.S., Unley Road, Unley.
1925. +Murray, Hon. Sir Grorce, K.C.M.G,, B.A, LL.M., Magill, S.A.
1925, Norry, Rev. WM. O., Methodist Manse, Netherby.
1930. Ocxenprn, G. P., 11 Ailsa Street, Fullarton Estate,
1913, *Osporn, T. G. B., D.Sc, Professor of Botany, University, Sydney—Council, 1915-20,
1922-24; President, 1925-26; Vice-President, 1924-25, 1926-27.
1927, Paxraince, T. B, B.Sc., Koonamore, via Waukaringa, S.A
1929, Panx, Harorp G., 75 Rundle Street, Adelaide,
1929. Paunt, Auec. G., B.A., B.Sc., 10 Milton Avenue, Fullarton Estate.
1924. Pearce, C., 33 Capper Street, Kent Town.
1927. Prnwycutcx, S. W., D.Sc., The University of Adelaide,
1924. Perxins, A. J., Director of Agriculture, Victoria Square.
1928, Purprs, Ivan F., Ph.D, Waite Agricultural Research Institute, Glen Osmond,
1926. *Prrer, C. S., M.Sc., Waite Agricultural Research Institute, Glen Osmond.
1925. *Prescott, Proressor J. A., M.Sc, A.LC., Waite Agricultural Research Institute, Glen
Osmond—Couneil, 1927-30; Vice-President, 1930-.
1926. Pricz, A. Grenrert, M.A., P.R.G.S., St. Mark's College, North Adelaide.
1907. +*PuLLerne, Rosert H., M.B., Ch.M., North Terrace, Adelaide—Council, 1914-19;
1925.
1926,
1911.
1924.
1925.
1905.
1922.
1928,
1924.
1891,
1926.
1928,
1920.
1924.
1925.
1927,
1922.
1925,
1929.
1928.
1929.
1923,
1923,
1923.
1894,
1925,
1878.
1926,
1924,
1929,
1912.
President, 1922-24: Vice-President, 1912-14, 1919-22, 1924-25; Secretary, 1909-12,
1925-30,
Ricuarpson, Professor A. E. V., M.A.,, D.Sc, “Urrbrae,” Glen Osmond, S.A.
*Riopett, P. D., Technical College, Newcastle, N.S.W.
Roacu, B. §., Education Department, Flinders Street, Adclaide—Treasurer, 1920-.
Rorcer, Miss M. T. P., c/o Central School, Goodwood.
Rocers, L. S., B.D.Sc., 192 North Terrace,
*Rocers, R. S. M.A. M.D. 52 Hutt Street, Adelaide—Council, 1907-14, 1919-21;
President, 1921-22; Vice-President, 1914-19, 1922-24,
*SAMUEL, GrorrrEy, M.Sc., University of Adelaide.
Scort, A. E., B.Sc. 143 Rundle Street, Kent Town.
*Secnit, Rarpo W., M.A, B.Sc., Architect-in-Chief’s Department, Victoria Square,
Adclaide—Secretary, 1930-.
Setway, W. H., 14 Frederick Street, Gilberton—Council, 1893-1909.
*SuHeARD, Harotp, Nuriootpa.
SHowet., H., 27 Dutton Terrace, Medindie.
Stmpson, A. A, C.M.G., C.B.E, F.R.G.S., Lockwood Road, Burnside.
Simpson, Frev. N., Dequetteville Terrace, Kent Town.
7SMiru, T. E. Barr, B.A, 25 Currie Street, Adelaide.
Starteton, P. S., Henley Beach, South Australia.
surron, J., Fullarton Road, Netherby.
Symons, Ivor G., Church Street, Highgate.
Taytor, Joun K., Waite Agricultural Research Institute, Glen Osmond.
TAyLor, Miss Viotet, 40 Eton Street, Malvern.
Tre, Srpney I*., Adelaide Hospital.
Tuomas, J. F., Tenterfield, N.S.W.
*Tuomas, R. G, B.Sc, § Trinity Street, St. Peters, S.A.
*TINDALE, N. B., South Australian Museum, Adelaide.
*Turner, A, Jerrerts, M.D., F.E.S., Wickham Terrace, Brisbane, Queensland.
Turner, Duptey C., National Chambers, King William Street, Adelaide.
*Vexco, Sir JoserH C., M.D., F.R.C.S., North Terrace, Adelaide—Council, 1924-:
President, 1903-21: Vice-President, 1921-23,
Warnwreicut, J. W., B.A., 32 Florence Street, Fullarton Estate.
Watker, W. D., M.B., B.S., B.Sc., c/o National Bank, King William Street.
Watters. Lance S.. 157 Buxton Street. North Adelaide,
*Warp, L. Kerry, BA, B.E., D.Sc., Govt. Geologist, Flinders Street, Adelaide—
Council, 1924-27; President, 1928-30; Vice-President, 1927-28.
210
Date of
Election.
1920. Wemensacu, W. W., A.S.A.5.M., Geological Department, Adelaide,
1904. Wuutprean, Howarn, c/o A. M. Bickford & Sons, Currie Street.
1930. Wuutteraw, A. J., Norwood High School, Kensington,
1930, Wutxrnson, Proressor H. J., B.A. ChM., M.D., University, Adelaide.
1920. *Witton, Professor J. R., D.Sc. University of Adelaide.
1923. *Woon, J. G., M.Sc., University of Adelaide.
1927. Woopvianps, Haroxp, Box 989 H, G.P.O.
1927. *Woottarp, Professor H. H., M.D., University of Adelaide.
ASSOCIATE.
1929. CreLanp, W. Patoxr, 31 Wattle Strect, Fullarton.
PAST AND PRESENT OFFICERS OF THE SOCIETY.
PRESIDENTS.
1877-79 Prov. Ratpu Tare, F.G.S., F.L.S. 1899-03 Pror.E.H.Renntr, M.A, D-Sc., F.C.S.
1879-81 Cuter Justice [Srr] S. J. Way. 1903-21 Sir Joseru C. Verco, M.D., F.R.C.S.
1881-82 [Str] Cuares Topp, C.M.G., F.R.A.S 1921-22 R. S. Rocers, M.A., M.D.
1882-83 H.T. Warrrett, M.A.,M.D.,F-R.M.S) 1922-24 R. H. PutteIne, M.3., Ch.M.
1883-84 Pror. H. Lams, M.A., F.R-S. 1924-25 Sir Dovctras Mawson, D.Sc., B.E,,
1884-85 H. E. Mars, M.1.CE. F.R.S.
1885-88 Pror.E.H. Rennie, M.A,, D.Sc, FCS. 1925-26 Pror. T. G. B. Osporn, D.Sc.
1888-89 [Str] Evwarp C. Srieinc, C.M.G., 1926-27 Pror. F. Woop Jones, M.B, B.S,
M.A, M.D. (Cantab.), F.R.CS., M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P., D.Se., F-R.S.
F.RS. 1927-28 Pror. Joun B. Crecranp, M.D.
1889-91 Rev, THomas Brackpurn, B.A. 1928-30 L. Kerra Warp, B.A., B.E., D.Se.,
1891-94. Pror. Ravpu Tate, F.G.S., F.L.S. E.G.S.A,
1894-96 Pror, WaLTeR Howcurn, F.G.S. 1930- C A. E. Fenner, D.Sc.
1896-99 W. L. Crecann, M.B.
SECRETARIES.
1877 W. C. M. FINNiss. 1895-96 W. L. CLeranp, M.B.
1877-81 Watter Rutt, C.E. 1896-09 G. G. Mayo, C.E.
1881-92 W. L. CLerann, M.B. 1909-12 R. H. Pucrerne, M.B., Ch.M.
1892-93 W. C. Graspy. 1912-24 Water Rutt, C.E.
1893-94 W. B. Poote. 1924-25 Cuas, Fenner, D.Sc.
1804-95 § W. L. Creranp, M.B. 1925-30 R. H. Purrernr, M.B., Ch.M.
LW. B. Poorer. 1930- Rateu W. Srenit, M.A., B.Sc.
TREASURERS.
1877 J. S. Luoyp. 1894-09 Watter Rutt, C.E.
1877-83 Tuomas H. Smxaron. 1909-20 W. B. Poors.
1883-92 Watter Rutt, C.E. 1920- B. S, Roacw.
1802-94 W. L. Ciecanp, MR.
EDITORS.
1877-83. Pxor. Ratpn Tare, F.G.S., F.L.S. 1894-95 Pror. Ratpu Tate, F.G.S., F.LS.
1883-88 Prov. Watrer Howcnin, F.G.S. 1895-96 Prov. WaLter Howcurn, F.G.S.
1888-93 Pror. RatpH Tare, F.G.S., F.L.S. 1901- Pror. Water Howcain, F.G.5.
1893-94 { Pror, Water Howcnin, F.G.5. |
| Prov. Rareu Tate, F.G.S., FLT...
REPRESENTATIVE GOVERNORS.
1877-83 [Srr] Cuarzes Topp, C.M.G., F.R.A.S| 1922-27 Pror. F. Woon Jones, M.B., etc.
1883-87 H. T. Warrrext, M.A., M.D., F.RMS.; 1927-29 Prov. T, H. Jonnston, M.A., D.Sc.
1887-01 Pror. Rateu Tarte, F.G.S., F.LS. 1929- Cuas. Fenner, D.Sc.
1901-22 Pror. Waiter Howcarn, F.G.S.
THE SIR JOSEPH VERCO MEDAL.
AWARDS.
1929 Pror. Water Howcurn, F.G.5. | 1930 Jorn McC. Brack (in absentia)
211
APPENDIX.
FIELD NATURALISTS’ SECTION
OF THE
Royal Society of South Australia (Incorporated).
FORTY-SEVENTH ANNUAL REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE
FOR THE YEAR ENDED AuGust 31, 1930,
MEMBERSHIP.—Last year’s membership was 150, of which total 110 were
financial, This year’s total membership remains about the same, taking into
account the losses by resignations and the new members elected.
Excursions.—Various trips were undertaken during the year to places of
interest, and visits were made to the Botanic Gardens and Museum. The Com-
mittee also reluctantly decided to abandon the motor trips, on account of the losses
involved through not being sufficiently patronised to justify a continuance of these
excursions at present.
LecrurEes.—We have been favoured with an interesting series of lantern
lectures during the period under review, as follows:—“The Stellar Universe,”
by Professor R. W. Chapman, C.M.G., M.A., B.C.E., FLR.A.S.; “The Architec-
ture of India,” by Rev. J. H. Allen, B.Sc.; “Honolulu, California and Arizona,”
by Dr. R. H. Pulleine, M.B., Ch.M.; “A Trip to Cairns,” by Mr. A. J. Morison;
“The Phenomena of the Atmosphere,” by Mr. A. G. Edquist; “The Association
of Insects with Plants,” by Dr. James Davidson, D.Sc. Others who have assisted
with lecturettes were:—Mr. A. M. Lea, F.E.S., on “Some New Guinea Insects” ;
Professor J. B. Cleland, on “A Trip to the MacDonnell Ranges”; Mr, J. G.
Wood, on “Wallace’s Line”; Mr. E. S. Thomas, on “Native Timbers”; and Dr. C.
‘Fenner, F.G.S., on “Some Australian Fossils.”
Exurpits.—Several members have contributed to this portion of our pro-
gramme, and we are at all times pleased to have members bring exhibits.
“Tue Sourm AUSTRALIAN NaTurAList.”—Our Journal has been published
regularly each quarter, under the editorship of Mr. Ham. The part to be issued
this month will complete volume IJ.
Witp Frowrr Suow.—The 1929 Annual Show was held on October 10
and 11 in the Adelaide Town Hall, which was made available by the kindness of
the Lord Mayor. The standard of past shows was well maintained, and resulted
in a successful function. The balance-sheet showed a profit of £39 8s. 4d.,
which was between £5 and £6 in advance of last year,
Herparium.—The work in the Herbarium has been continued, several meet-
ings have been held, and the arranging and mounting of specimens have been
proceeded with.
AUSTRALASIAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE, BRISBANE,
May-June, 1930.—At these meetings the F.N.S. was represented by Messrs.
J. Bailey and A. G. Edquist.
RESIGNATION OF SECRETARY.—During the year the Section sustained a great
loss, when Mr. E. H. Ising tendered his resignation as Honorary Secretary, after
12 years devoted service, dating from December 31, 1930. At a later date an
opportunity was taken of making a presentation to Mr. E. H. Ising in recognition
of his services. We have, however, been fortunate in securing his services as
212
Show Secretary for this year, as his past experiences in Show work will make
his help in this capacity a very valuable contribution to the success of our 1930
Show.
New SEcRETARY.—Following Mr. Ising’s resignation, nominations were
called for through “The South Australian Naturalist” for the position of Hon.
Secretary, without response. At a meeting of the Committee, held on January 15,
the undersigned consented to take the position of Acting Hon. Secretary, and has
continued to act in that capacity.
H. Woopianps, Acting Hon. Secretary.
August 19, 1930.
ANNUAL REPORT OF SHELL COLLECTORS’ CLUB
FOR THE YEAR ENDED Aucust 31, 1930.
There were 21 meetings during the year, with an average attendance of 12.
Gastropods have been under review, and the following families have been
dealt with, viz.:—Pleurotomariidae, Fiasurellidae, Haliotidae, Stomatidae, Thochi-
dae, Turbinidae, Liotiidae, Neritidae, Acmaeidae.
Members of the Club invite those who have an interest in shells to join with
them on the first and third Mondays in each month.
(Signed) W. J. KimBer, Chairman.
F, K. Goprrey, Secretary.
ANNUAL REPORT OF THE MICROSCOPE COMMITTEE.
The activities of the Microscope Committee of the Field Naturalists’ Sec-
tion extended throughout the year 1930, and the meetings maintained the usual
regular attendance.
Early in the year the Committee was approached by the President of the
Legacy Club with a view to interesting the boys in microscopic matters. Mr.
Harding, assisted by divers members, arranged a number of lectures that were
well attended, As a result of these efforts it was felt by members of the Com-
mittee that it would be fitting if the ordinary meetings of the Committee were
thrown open to any of the lads who were interested, with the result that a large
number, in charge of Mr. Shepherd, attended regularly.
The Committee was fortunate in obtaining the services of Mrs. Best, of the
University staff. On one occasion a highly instructive lecturette was delivered
on “Parasitology,” and on another occasion the subject was “Single-celled Animal-
culae.’ Both lectures were amply illustrated with slides and specimens. On the
occasion of the latter lecture the Committee joined with the Aquarium Society,
and a very large gathering was present.
Mr. Machell, of the Education Department, was also kind enough to give an
evening on “Aquarium Life,” which was highly appreciated. An outline of
Natural History, as taught in the schools of the State, was also given.
The thanks of the Committee are due to the Vice-President, Mr. W. A.
Harding, who so kindly placed his microscopic projector at the disposal of the
Committee. The instrument enabled large images of remarkable accuracy to be
thrown on a screen, thus greatly facilitating the observation of the slides by the
members.
(Signed) Frank B. CoLtins,
Hon. Secretary Microscope Committee.
213
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214
GENERAL INDEX.
[Generic and specific names in italics indicate that the forms described
are new to science.]
Aborigines, Physiological and Mental Obser-
vations on Australian, 64, 76
Acacia lineata, 59
Acia subceracea, 155; subfasctcularia, 155
a University Field Anthropology, 62,
6
Annual Meeting, 190
Anthropology, Adelaide University Field, 62,
76
Antiquity of Man in Australia, 183, 187
Ashby, E., Notes on Australian Polypla-
cophora, 57; Exhibit of Arum Roots, 184
Australian Aborigines, 62, 76
Australian Resupinate Hydnaceae, 155
Authors, Suggestions to, 182, 206
Balance Sheets, 196
Basedow, H., Coleoptera collected by, 148
Basedowta, 150; B. basicollis, 150
Bergia perennis, 61
Black, J. M., Additions to the Flora of South
Australia, 59; Awarded Sir Joseph Verco
Medal, 185
Black Hill Range, Geology of, 160, 170
Black Rock Range, Geology of, 170
Brevicalear, 37
Bromus macrostachys, 59
Bulbosae, 39
Caladenia bicolor, 46; rigida, 45
Callistochiton mawlei, 58
Callochiton, 57
Calochilus saprophyticus, 41
Campbell, T. D., Human Remains, 184;
Exhibit of Deciduous Teeth, 188; Pebbles
and Shells from Franklin Island, 191.
Centaurea repens, 61
Chapman, F., Congratulations to, 192
Cleland, J. B., Notes on the Flora North-West
of Port Augusta between Lake Torrens and
Tarcoola, 140
Coleoptera from Northern Australia, 148
Darwinia micropetala, 61
“Discovery” Expedition,
Sir D. Mawson, and Prof. T. H. Johnston,
182
Drainage systems of South Australia, 24
Edquist, A. G., Exhibit of seedling Mallee, 182
Endowment and Scientific Research Fund, 198
Eucarya spicata, 140
Eudoxochiton, 57
Eudoxoplax, 57
Eyre Peninsula (Southern), Plants of, 125,
127
Congratulations to |
Fellows, etc., List of, 207
Fenner, C., Major Structural and Physio-
graphical Features of South Australia, 1;
Earliest Known Human Remains in Aus-
tralia, 184; Physiographic Aspect of Human
Remains in the Murray Valley, 187;
Exhibit of Volcanic Bombs, 188
Field Naturalists’ Section, 211
Finlayson, H, H., Observations on the South
Australian Species of the Subgenus
Wallabia, 47; Notes on some South and
Central Australian Mammals, 177; Mam-
mal Remains in the Murray Valley, 187
Fleurieu Peninsula, Botany of, List of Species,
118
Flora North-West of Port Augusta between
Lake Torrens and Tarcoola; 140; of South
Australia, 59
Fry, H. K., Physiological and Psychological
Observations on Australian Aborigines, 76
Fusanus spicatus, 140
Geology of Orroroo and District, 159
Grandinia australis, 156; Clelandii, 156;
farinacea, 156; glauca, 158
Grant, K., Obituary Notice of Prof. T.
Brailsford Robertson, 193
Hakea ulicina latifolia, 59
Hale, H. M., Fossil Man in the Murray
Valley, 187
Haplonycha rufocastanea, 149
Highlands of South Australia, 15
Hirst, A. S., Obituary Notice, 192
Howchin, W., The Geology of Orroroo and
District, 159; Exhibit of Vertebra and
Coprolite of an Ichthyosaurian, 190
Human Remains in the Murray Valley, 187
Hydnaceae, Australian Resupinate, 155
Jennison, J. C., Aboriginal Artifacts, 182
Johnston, T. H., Congratulations on return of
the “Discovery,” 182; Exhibit of Whale
Darts and Bomb, 188
Kangaroo Island, Botany of, 105; Analysis of
the Flora of, 109; Analysis of the Vegeta-
tion of, 117; List of Species, 127
Lea, A. M., On some Coleoptera from North-
ern Australia, collected by Dr. H. Basedow,
148; Exhibit of Insects, 181, 184, 188, 189,
191
Lepidopleurus mathewsianus, 58
Library, Donations to, 199
215
Macropus (Wallabia) ruficollis typicus, 47
Madigan, C. T., Exhibit of Fossil Plants, 189;
Fossilised Log, 191
Magarey, W. A., Obituary Notice, 192, 193
Mammals, South and Central Australian, 177
Mawson, Sir D., Congratulations on the return
of the “Discovery,” 182, 191
May, W. L., Purchase of his Conchological
Collection, 181 ;
Medal, The Sir Joseph Verco, Awarded to
Mr. J. McC. Black, 185
Mediocalear (Brevicalcar) papuanum, 37
Microscope Committee, 212
Microtis magnadenia, 44
Mucra Range, Geology of, 162
Obituary, Prof. T Brailsford Robertson, 182; |
Francis H. Snow, 183; W. A. Magarey, |
192; A. S. Hirst, 192
Odontia Archeri, 157; arguta, 157
Oladdie, Geology of, 173
Orchidology of Papua and Australia, 37
Orroroo to Pekina Hill, Geology of, 159
Papers, Regulations Concerning, 205
Peaked Hill Range, Geology of, 173
Pekina Range, Geology of, 160
Petaurus breviceps, 177
Petrogale lateralis, 179
Phreatia (Bulbosae) robusta, 39
Physiography and Climate of South Australia,
10
Plains and Plateaus of South Australia, 21
Polyphrades crassicornis, 152; farinosus, 151;
gibbipennis, 152
Polyplacophora, Notes on Australian, 57
Prasophyllum Hartii parviflorum, 44
Pterohelaeus arcanus, 150
Pulleine, R., and H. Woollard, Physiological
and Mental Observations on the Australian
Aborigines, 62
Robertson, Prof. T. Brailsford, Obituary
Notice, 182, 192, 193
Rogers, R. S., Contributions to the Orchid-
ology of Papua and Australia, 37
Sandalwood, Information concerning Com-
mercial, 140
Santalum lanceolatum, 143
Secretary, Resignation of, 182, 191
Segnit, R. W., Exhibit of a Gull, Pagophila
eburnea, 181
| Wakefield, E. M,,
Shell Collectors’ Club, 212
Snow, Francis H., Obituary Notice, 183
South Australia, Structural and Physiographic
Features, 1; Southern Coastline, 2; Tec-
tonic Movements, 3; Physiography and
Climate, 10; Highlands, 15; Plains and
Bor ige 21; Drainage Systems, 24; Flora
of, 59
South Australian Species of Wallabia, 47
Southern Coastline of South Australia, 2
Spathoglottis alpina, 38
Structural and Physiographic Features
South Australia, 1
Sturtian Tillite, Remarkable Development in
the Orroroo District, 162, 170
Swainsona canescens, 60; dictyocarpa, 60
of
Tectonic Movements in South Australia, 3
Tentegia amplipennis, 153; quinguesinuata, 153
Tephrosia sphaerospora, 60
| Thalacomys lagotis, 178
| Thelymitra, D’Altonii, 42; Sargent, 41
| Tindale, N. B., Cultural Status of Aborigines,
184; Human Remains and Associated Arti-
facts, 187; Exhibit of Native Foods, 191
Trifolium Bocconei, 60
Trigonella ornithopodioides, 60
Triodia longiceps, 59
| Verco, Sir Joseph, Medal, 195
Australian Resupinate
Hydnaceae, 155
Wallabia, 47
Walloway, Geology of, 173
Ward, L. K., Exhibit of Stichtite, Rodingite,
Dunite, Ribbon-stone, Petrol, Crude Petro-
leum, Stellite, 188; Earliest Man and Aus-
tralia, 183
Wood, J. G., An Analysis of the Vegetation
of Kangaroo Island and the Adjacent Penin-
sulas, 105
Woollard, H., and R. Pulleine, Physiological
and Mental Observations on the Australian
Aborigines, 62
Yorke Peninsula (Southern), List of Plant
Species, 125
Zygophyllum fruticulosum brevilobum, 60
a
Trans. and Proc. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., 1930.
Vol. LIV., Plate [.
Fig. 1.
Photo by H. H. Finlayson.
Gillingham
& Co. Limited, Printers.
Trans. and Proc. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., 1930. Vol. LIV., Plate IT.
Photo by H. H. Finlayson. Gillingham & Co. Limited, Printers.
Trans. and Proc. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., 1930. Vol. LIV., Plate ITI.
Fig. 1.
Photo by K. Crane, Gillingham & Co. Limited, Printers.
Trans. and Proc. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., 1930. Vol. LIV., Plate IV.
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Gillingham & Co. Limited, Printers.
Trans. and Proc. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., 1930. Vol. LIV., Plate V.
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Trans. and Proc. Roy. Soc. S. Austr.,
1930.
Vol. LIV., Plate VI.
Fig. 2.
Gillingham & Co. Limited, Printers.
Trans. and Proc. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., 1930, Vol. LYV., Plate: Vi.
Gillingham & Co. Limited, Printers.
Trans. and Proc. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., 1930. Vol. LIV., Plate VIIT.
Fig. 1. North Face of Depdt Hill and Faulted Block in the foreground.
The whole view is Tillite, except the clear edge on which the camera stood.
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Fig. 2. Depdt Range, 5 miles—with Faulted Block in foreground.
The whole consists of Tillite, except the clear edge on which the camera stood.
Gillingham & Co, Jimited, Printers.
Trans. and Proc. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., 1930.
Vol. LIV., Plate IX.
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Fig. 1. Crest of “Granite Top,” showing Glen Osmond Quartzite resting on
Glen Osmond Lower Slates.
Fig. 2. “Peaked Hill.” Viewof portion of the Tillite Outcrop.
Gillingham & Co, Limited, Printers.
CONTENTS.
Page
FENNER, Dr. Wer The Major Structural and Physiographic Features of South Australia... 1
Rocers, Dr. R. S.: Contributions to the Orchidology of Papua ‘ac Australia = ae OF
Fintayson, H. H.: Observations on the South Australian Species of the Subgenus
Writiiac Patti2 “Plates Gat ee ao ce a Se ee
Asupy, E.: Notes on Australian Polyplacophora ee aes ‘is ve mS nA aE
Brack, J. M.: Additions to the Flora of South Australia. No. 28, Plate ivy. ve aoe
ADELAIDE University Frerp Anruropo.ocy—
Puttetne, Dr. R., and Wootrarp, H.: Physiological and Mental Cina on the
Australian Aecgieies 5s - ac re = reeroe
Fry, Dr. H: K.: Physiological end Piieaolocieni Guseeatae a P i Arey 5
Woop, J. G.:3, An Analysis of the Vegetation of Kangaroo Island and the Adjacent
Peninsulas - eis sacks igs aS aes tae va tUS
CieLanp, Dr. J. B.: Notes on the Flora North-West of Port Augusta, between- Lake
Torrens and Parcogls, Ptabes. Verve esa nes ia ae a ae .. 140
Bax: A. M.: On some Coleoptera from Northern Australia, Collected by Dr..H. Basedow 148
WakeFIieLp, FE. ro Australian Resupinate Hydnaceae. (Communicated by Dr. J B.
Cleland) oi o xo aa Pe es Me Cig ae ag 6, = 155.
Howcuin, Pror, W.: The Geology of Orroroo and District. Plates viii. and ix... .. 159
F INLAYSON, H. H.: Notes on some South and Central Australian Mammals. Part I. .. 177
ABSTRACT. OF Proceenines oe ee an s = a, = i tae a EE
““Annvat Retorr ue Svat oeane hey a 2 ra aa See 2 .. 191
Oxsrrvary Notice Bee eG Nee oe rae ee et Ne
Pi JOSEPH: Wenco: Mupar cory at ag aay ene ee pe eee Oe
BALANCE SHEETS E e: me . ae a8 < ar, 4 ms BA ae v> 196
ENDOWMENT AND SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH Funp .. ey hg re a .. 198
~ Donations To Liprary ;. ye es ee =H = : 199
Papers, Regulations concerning 7 ae se Be a a ts 3 2 205
SUGGESTIONS FOR THE GUIDANCE OF AUTHORS fe = F = is Fe ves Sa 9]
List or Fettows .. os a - ss a: = sy Fs a cs eee
APPENDIX—
Field Naturalists’ Section: Fee: Report, etc. ee <5 a os aoe el
Shell Collectors’ Club Pes es ae i es a7 wa ne or sowld
Microscope Committee .. teas os aa iy - s a eele
INDEX a = S ss pe eee ae ie ea pete: